Net zero: Environmental and social implications of energy storage technologies: summary
Published 14 March 2025
Applies to England
© Crown copyright 2025
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1. Chief Scientist’s Group report summary
This project examined the potential environmental and social implications of energy storage technologies. The energy storage technologies of interest were ammonia storage, hydrogen storage, compressed air energy storage, thermal energy storage, underground pumped hydroelectric storage and battery energy storage systems. This summary of available knowledge will help provide the Environment Agency and others with evidence to regulate these technologies, support their deployment, and avoid or mitigate any unintended consequences.
1.1 Background
The shift to net zero has increased renewable energy production in England. Energy storage technologies are needed to ensure continuous supply during periods of low renewable energy production. Energy can be stored in a variety of forms (such as thermal, chemical or potential energy), all of which could have potential environmental impacts during construction, deployment or decommissioning. The Environment Agency wanted to understand the potential risks to the environment, as well as the potential social implications. It also wishes to understand how the technologies might be best regulated to mitigate potential environmental impacts through effective site and/or process management.
1.2 Approach
Information was collated from internal workshops and a literature review of the published scientific and grey literature. The project aimed to understand the existing and anticipated deployment rate, and the potential social and environmental impacts of each technology throughout their lifecycle.
1.3 Results
The level of deployment and development of each technology varies, with some (including battery energy storage systems) being more advanced and others (including compressed air energy storage) being at an earlier stage of development.
Environmental impacts will depend on the scale and the sub-type of each technology, but some of the common impacts included:
- Impacts from mining and use of water for processing ores
- Generation and disposal of brines from salt cavern creation
- Increased microbial activity and potential thermal, geochemical and geomechanical impacts in the subsurface
- Leakage and fugitive emissions (such as hydrogen or ammonia)
- Use of water resources (such as being used as a coolant)
- Use of persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances
- Potential for leaching or emission of harmful materials in the case of major accidents, such as fires or floods
Social research is generally sparse for energy storage technologies, but perceptions tend to be more favourable when a technology is associated with ‘green’ energy, or when it is seen to provide local jobs. Some technologies are associated with perceived safety concerns.
1.4 Conclusions
Current deployment of the six energy storage technologies varies, with the technology being most advanced for battery energy storage systems and below ground hydrogen storage. It is recommended that guidance for regulation and management of these more advanced technologies should be prioritised over those for technologies which remain at the research stage. All six technologies will probably have impacts to air, land and/or water, but the type and extent of the impact will vary between the different technologies and between the different sub-types of each technology. This information will help the Environment Agency to ensure that impacts are suitably managed as scale-up of these technologies continues.
1.5 Publication Details
This summary relates to information from the following project:
- Report: SC230002/R
- Title: Net zero – Environmental and social implications of energy storage technologies
- Project manager: Helen Brooks, Chief Scientist’s Group
- Research contractor: Risk & Policy Analysts (RPA Ltd)
This project was commissioned by the Environment Agency’s Chief Scientist’s Group, which provides scientific knowledge, tools and techniques to enable us to protect and manage the environment as effectively as possible.
Enquiries: research@environment-agency.gov.uk.
© Environment Agency