Introduction

This chapter begins by presenting the number of bedrooms available to households and levels of overcrowding and under-occupation, followed by an assessment of EHS housing quality measures: decent homes, Housing Health and Safety Rating System (HHSRS) and damp by tenure. It ends by discussing the presence of a working smoke alarm, the household frequency of testing smoke alarms, and whether dwellings with or without a solid fuel appliance have a carbon monoxide detector.

For an introduction and summary of main findings in this report as a whole, please see the Introduction and key findings page.

Bedrooms available to households

Compared to pre-pandemic data (in 2019-20), there was a decrease in the number of bedrooms available to rented sector households, alongside a decrease in the mean household size.

In the private rented sector, 22% of households in 2023-24 had one bedroom, up from 18% of households in 2019-20. Concurrently, there was a decrease in the proportion of private rented sector households with three or more bedrooms available, dropping from 44% in 2019-20 to 37% in 2023-24, Annex Table 1.1.

The social rented sector saw a similar shift. The proportion of households who had one bedroom increased from 28% in 2019-20 to 31% in 2023-24, and dropped for households with three or more bedrooms available from 36% to 32%.

There was no change for owner occupied households over this time period. A small proportion (3%) of households had one bedroom available in both 2019-20 and 2023-24. Similarly, 76% of owner occupied households had three or more bedrooms available in both years, Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Households with one bedroom, by tenure, 2019-20 and 2023-24

^{Base: all households
Note: underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.1
Sources:
English Housing Survey, full household sample}

Compared to pre-pandemic times, the mean household size also decreased in both the private rented sector (from 2.5 persons to 2.3 persons) and the social rented sector (from 2.3 persons to 2.1 persons), Annex Table 1.3, English Housing Survey 2023-24 Headline Findings on Demographics and Household Resilience.

Overcrowding and under-occupation

Levels of overcrowding and under-occupation are measured using the bedroom standard (see glossary for more detail). This is essentially the difference between the number of bedrooms needed to avoid undesirable sharing (given the number, ages and relationship of the household members) and the number of bedrooms available to the household.

Since the number of overcrowded households included in each survey year is too small to enable reliable overcrowding estimates for any single year, data from the three most recent survey years (2023-24, 2022-23 and 2021-22) were combined to produce the overcrowding estimates in this section. Care should be taken in interpreting individual year-on-year changes.

The overall rate of overcrowding in England in 2023-24 was 3%, with approximately 790,000 households living in overcrowded conditions. This is similar to 2020-21 where around 738,000 households were overcrowded (3%), Annex Table 1.2.

Overcrowding was more prevalent in the rented sectors than for owner occupiers. In 2023-24, 1% of owner occupiers (164,000 households) were overcrowded compared with 9% of social renters (358,000) and 6% of private renters (268,000). Social rented households were more likely to be overcrowded than private rented.

Overcrowding increased over the last 10 years in the social rented sector, affecting 6% of households in 2013-14 and 9% in 2023-24, Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Overcrowding, by tenure, 1995-96 to 2023-24

^{Base: all households
Notes:
1) data are based on three year averages, which are the average of the three years up to and including the labelled date
2) underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.2
Sources:
1995-96 to 2007-08: Survey of English Housing;
2008-09 onwards: English Housing Survey, full household sample}

The overall rate of under-occupation in England in 2023-24 was 40%, with around 9.9 million households living in under-occupied homes, Annex Table 1.3.

Under-occupation was much more prevalent among owner occupiers than in the rented sectors. Over half (56%) of owner occupied households (8.9 million households) were under-occupied in 2023-24, compared with 13% of private rented (605,000) and 9% of social rented (364,000) households.

There was a significant decrease in the proportion of under-occupied households in the private rented sector, from 16% in 2022-23 to 13% in 2023-24.

The overall proportion of under-occupied households among owner occupiers in England increased between 2013-14 and 2023-24 from 50% (7.2 million households) to 56% (8.9 million households), Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Under-occupation, by tenure, 1995-96 to 2023-24

^{Base: all households
Note: underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.3
Sources:
1995-96 to 2007-08: Survey of English Housing
2008-09 onwards: English Housing Survey, full household sample}

Dwelling quality and condition

Data from 2023 represents the first time since the COVID-19 pandemic where surveyors were able to undertake full surveys of dwellings. During the pandemic, a more limited ‘external plus’ approach was taken to the physical survey, and detailed assessments of housing quality variables were not possible. This year, we are able to produce and analyse a full range of housing quality variables.

Housing quality measures modelled during the COVID-19 period (2020 and 2021) were for occupied dwellings only, and in 2022, a hybrid variable which combined actual measured data from 2022-23 with modelled data from 2021-22, which included vacant dwellings, was used. Comparisons made between 2023 and pandemic years (2020-2022) should be considered with caution. Where appropriate, we have made additional comparisons with pre-pandemic data (2019).

Decent Homes

In 2023, 15% or 3.8 million dwellings failed to meet the Decent Homes Standard, similar to 2022, Annex Table 1.4.

As in previous years, the private rented sector had the highest proportion of non-decent dwellings (21%) while the social rented sector had the lowest (10%). Among owner occupied dwellings, 14% failed to meet the Decent Homes Standard, similar to 2022, Figure 1.4.

Over the last 10 years, a decrease in the prevalence of non-decency occurred across all tenures. Since 2013, the proportion of private rented sector dwellings considered non-decent decreased from 30% to 21%, in the owner occupied sector from 19% to 14%, and in the social rented sector from 15% to 10%.

Between 2011 and 2019, there was a notable reduction in the prevalence of non-decent dwellings across all tenures. From 2019 to 2023, the proportion of non-decent dwellings in the private rented sector remained stable. In 2023, 1.0 million private rented sector dwellings were non-decent, a number not statistically different from 1.1 million in 2019. However, there have been decreases in the owner occupied sector (from 16% to 14%) and the social rented sector (from 12% to 10%) from 2019 to 2023.

Figure 1.4: Non-decent homes, by tenure, 2011 to 2023

^{Base: 2011-2019 and 2022-2023 all dwellings; 2020-2021, occupied dwellings
Notes:
1) 2020 and 2021 figures are estimated based on dwelling level modelled data
2) 2020 were revised from extrapolated to dwelling modelled data and marked with an (R)
3) underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.4
Sources:
2011-2019, 2023: English Housing Survey, dwelling sample
2020-2021 English Housing Survey, modelled data based on occupied dwelling sample
2022 English Housing survey dwelling sample, modelled and observed data based on all dwellings}

Local Authority Housing Statistics (LAHS), published in November 2024, show that 9% of local authority homes did not meet the Decent Homes Standard on 31 March 2024. The LAHS figures show a lower proportion of non-decent homes for multiple reasons. Firstly, only the properties that local authorities have been made aware of (e.g. after a property is vacated or if the tenant raises an issue) are included in the count. Additionally, LAHS represents dwellings as of 31 March, so will not include dwellings identified and then remediated during the year, compared to the English Housing Survey which assesses dwellings year-round. Cases where tenants have refused improvement work are also excluded.

The EHS shows there is significant variation in housing quality across England. In the owner occupied sector, London had a significantly lower rate of non-decent dwellings (9%) than all other regions (13-18%) except the North East and East of England (both 13%).

In the private rented sector, a similar pattern was seen, with London (12%) having a lower proportion of non-decent dwellings than all other regions (21-31%) with the exception of the East of England (17%). The highest rates of non-decency in the private rented sector were seen in Yorkshire and the Humber (31%).

In the social rented sector, however, the East of England had the lowest rate of non-decency (6%), significantly lower than all other regions with the exception of the North East (9%) and the West Midlands (9%), Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Non-decent homes, by region, 2023

^{Base: all dwellings
Notes:
1) underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.5
Sources:
2023 English Housing Survey, dwelling sample}

Housing Health and Safety Rating System (HHSRS)

The HHSRS is a risk-based assessment that identifies hazards in dwellings and evaluates their potential effects on the health and safety of occupants and their visitors, particularly vulnerable people, e.g. children or older people. The most serious hazards are called Category 1 hazards and where these exist in a home, it fails to meet the statutory minimum standard for housing in England.

In 2023, 8% or 2.0 million dwellings in England had a HHSRS Category 1 hazard, less than in 2021 (9%). These hazards were more prevalent in private rented dwellings (10%) than in owner occupied (8%) or social rented dwellings (4%).

In the last two years, the proportion of dwellings with a Category 1 hazard has fallen in both the private rented sector (from 14% to 10%) and owner occupied sector (from 10% to 8%). There was also a decrease compared to before the COVID-19 pandemic (2019) when 10% of owner occupied dwellings and 13% of private rented sector dwellings contained a Category 1 hazard, Annex Table 1.6 and Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Homes with Category 1 hazards, by tenure, 2011 to 2023

^{Base: 2011-2019 and 2022-2023 All dwellings; 2020-2021 Occupied dwellings
Notes:
1) 2020 and 2021 figures are estimated based on dwelling level modelled data
2) 2020 figures were revised from extrapolated to dwelling modelled data and marked with an (R)
3) underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.6
Sources:
2011-2019, 2023 English Housing Survey, dwelling sample
2020-2021 English Housing Survey, modelled data based on occupied dwelling sample
2022 English Housing survey dwelling sample, modelled and observed data based on all dwellings}

A dwelling with a Category 1 hazard automatically fails the minimum standard part of the Decent Homes Standard. However, not all non-decent dwellings contain a hazard, since they may fail on other DHS criteria regarding disrepair, modern facilities and thermal comfort. Dwellings can also fail the standard on multiple counts.

In the owner occupied and private rented sector, more dwellings failed on the minimum standard (8% and 10%) than on disrepair (4% and 6%), modern facilities (1% and 2%) and thermal comfort (4% and 8%). In the social rented sector, failures on the minimum standard and disrepair (both 4%) were more common than failures on modern facilities (1%) and thermal comfort (3%), Annex Table 1.9.

The most common Category 1 hazards found across all dwellings were falls on stairs (3%), excess cold (2%), falls on the level (1%), falls between levels (1%) and damp (1%), Annex Table 1.8.

The proportion of dwellings in the social rented sector with a falls on stairs hazard (1%) was significantly lower than in the owner occupied (3%) and private rented sectors (4%). This trend was similarly observed for excess cold, where 0.3% of social rented sector dwellings had this hazard, lower than in owner occupied (3%) and private rented (2%) dwellings.

Damp

In the English Housing Survey, a home is considered to have damp, or a problem with damp, if the surveyor records damp which is significant enough to be taken into consideration when making their HHSRS assessments. Therefore, minor issues of damp are not recorded.

Comparisons with recent years should be considered with caution, as modelled data was used from 2020 to 2022.

In 2023, 5% or 1.3 million dwellings had a problem with damp, an increase on the 4% in modelled data in both 2021 and 2022, Annex Table 1.9.

Between 1996 and 2011, there was a sizable reduction in the prevalence of all dwellings with damp problems, however, incidences of damp have increased since 2019, Annex Table 1.9 and Figure 1.7. While this goes against the general trend of housing quality improvement, it is not necessarily surprising. Remediation of damp caused by disrepair over the COVID-19 pandemic was possibly slowed since work could not be done under social distancing restrictions.

Increasing energy costs over this time period may have also made it more difficult for households to effectively heat dwellings, a known driver of serious condensation. The English Housing Survey 2022 to 2023: energy report found that in 2022, in response to rising energy prices, 12.4 million households (51%) reported cutting down the number of hours they heated their home, 11.3 million households (46%) heated their homes to a lower temperature, and 8.1 million households (33%) heated fewer rooms.

Figure 1.7: Damp problems, 1996 to 2023

^{Base: 1996-2019 and 2022-2023 All dwellings; 2020-2021 Occupied dwellings
Notes:
1) 2020 and 2021 figures are estimated based on dwelling level modelled data
2) 2020 have been revised from extrapolated to dwelling modelled data and marked with an (R)
3) underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.9
Sources:
1996-2007: English House Condition Survey, dwelling sample
2010-2019, 2023 English Housing Survey, dwelling sample
2020-2021 English Housing Survey, modelled data based on occupied dwelling sample
2022 English Housing survey dwelling sample, modelled and observed data based on all dwellings}

Damp problems were more prevalent in private rented dwellings, with 9% of dwellings having a problem in 2023, compared to 7% of social rented dwellings and just 4% of owner occupied dwellings, Annex Table 1.10.

When compared to 2019 (pre-COVID), there was an increase across all tenures in the prevalence of damp. In 2019, 5% of local authority dwellings had a problem with damp, which increased to 9% in 2023. For housing association dwellings, the proportion rose from 4% to 5%.

Within the private sector, the prevalence of damp also increased. The proportion of private rented dwellings with damp rose from 7% in 2019 to 9% in 2023. In the owner occupied sector, damp was observed in 2% of dwellings in 2019, which doubled to 4% in 2023.

In 2023, serious condensation was more prevalent in homes (3%) than penetrating damp (2%) and rising damp (2%). Since 2019, the last time when specific types of damp were observed within the EHS, there has been an increase in rising damp from 1% to 2%, an increase in penetrating damp from 1% to 2% and an increase in serious condensation/mould from 2% to 3%.

In 2023, the proportion of dwellings with serious condensation was significantly higher in the social rented sector (5%) than in the owner occupied sector (2%). Within the social rented sector, local authority dwellings were more likely to have serious condensation (7%) than housing association dwellings (4%).

In the private rented sector, the proportion of dwellings with penetrating damp and rising damp (both 3%) was higher than in the owner occupier sector (2% and 1% respectively), Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: Type of damp problems in dwellings by tenure, 2023

^{Base: 2023, all dwellings
Notes:
1) underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.10
Source:
2023 English Housing survey dwelling sample}

As a part of the interview for the English Housing Survey, respondents were asked about common problems that people may experience in their homes. In 2023, 29% of households reported their home had problems with condensation, damp or mould. Households in the private rented sector (44%) were more likely to mention this than households in the social rented sector (39%) and the owner occupied sector (22%).

Levels of self-reported damp are substantially higher than levels of damp recorded by surveyors. This is likely to be for several reasons. Households may have reported problems with condensation, damp or mould during the EHS interview where these issues were present at lower levels (they were not significant enough to be taken into consideration in a HHSRS assessment), or in rooms rarely or never used by the household. Additionally, damp, condensation and mould can be seasonal and transient in causing problems for households, which the separate EHS physical survey would not be able to observe if issues were not present on the day the surveyor visited. Finally, the self-reported damp measure is a subjective rather than objective measure, and there will inevitably be differences in the level or type of damp that households consider problematic.

Across all tenures, 13% of households who reported having a problem with condensation, damp or mould lived in a dwelling where surveyors observed a problem with damp, and 2% where a Category 1 hazard level of damp was present, Annex Table 1.11.

Mentioning a problem with condensation, damp or mould in the EHS interview may be driven by how a household uses and occupies their home in addition to the physical structure of the dwelling. From 2017 to 2019, the Energy Follow-Up Survey sampled respondents from the English Housing Survey to collect further detailed information on heating, hot water and appliances. The report found links between both the physical elements of dwellings and the socio-economic characteristics of the households and the likelihood of households reporting they had a problem with damp. This suggests variation and complexity in the reasons a household may report a problem within the EHS interview.

Smoke alarms

In 2023-24, 92% of households reported having at least one working smoke alarm. The proportion of households reporting they have working smoke alarms varied by tenure. Social renters were most likely to report having at least one working smoke alarm (97%), compared with 92% of owner occupiers, and 91% of private renters, Annex Table 1.12 and Figure 1.9.

Over the last 10 years, the proportion of households with a working smoke alarm increased from 88% to 92%, with no statistically significant changes between 2023-24 and 2022-23.

Figure 1.9: Households with at least one working smoke alarm, by tenure, 2008-09 to 2023-24

^{Base: all households
Notes:
1) data was not collected in 2009-10
2) underlying data are presented in Annex Table 1.12
Source: English Housing Survey, full household sample}

While the proportion of households with smoke alarms increased over the last decade, almost a quarter of households (24%) reported they had never tested their smoke alarm in 2023-24, similar to 2022-23, Annex Table 1.13. (Smoke alarms have previously been explored in more detail in the 2014-15 Smoke Alarms in English Homes Report).

In 2023-24, 30% of private renters, 28% of social renters and 20% of owner occupiers reported that they had never tested their smoke alarm.

Carbon monoxide detectors

In 2023, 60% of all dwellings had a carbon monoxide alarm, up from 44% in 2019, Annex Table 1.14.

Dwellings with a solid fuel burning appliance, such as a coal fire or wood burning stove, were more likely (66%) to have a carbon monoxide alarm than dwellings with no solid fuel appliance (59%).

From October 2015, private sector landlords have been required to install a carbon monoxide alarm in any room containing a solid fuel burning appliance. They were also required to ensure the alarm was working at the beginning of each new tenancy.

In 2023, 65% of private rented sector dwellings with a solid fuel appliance had a carbon monoxide alarm, less than in the social rented sector (82%) but similar to the owner occupied sector (66%). Across all tenures, the proportion of dwellings with a solid fuel burning appliance with a carbon monoxide alarm increased when compared to pre-pandemic data. In 2019, 52% of owner occupied dwellings, 47% of private rented sector dwellings and 59% of social rented sector dwellings with a solid fuel appliance had a carbon monoxide alarm present.