Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023
Published 30 November 2023
Applies to England and Wales
© Crown copyright 2023
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This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/police-use-of-force-statistics-april-2022-to-march-2023/police-use-of-force-statistics-england-and-wales-april-2022-to-march-2023
From 1 April 2017, the Home Office required all police forces in the UK to record data on the police’s use of force to provide the public with more information on the different types of force used and the context in which it occurs.
Data was collected from the 43 Home Office funded police forces in England and Wales.
A ‘use of force’ incident is defined as a situation in which a police officer uses any of the following force tactics.
Restraint tactics:
- handcuffing (compliant or non-compliant)
- limb or body restraints
- ground restraint
Unarmed skills:
- escorting individuals
- distraction strikes with hands and feet
- pressure point and joint locks
Use of other equipment:
- a baton (including where it was drawn but not used)
- irritant spray (including where it was drawn but not used)
- spit and bite guard
- shield (for example, person struck or pushed with a shield)
Less lethal weapons:
- Conducted Energy Device (CED), for example TASER ® (including non-discharge uses)
- Attenuating Energy Projectile (AEP) (including where it was drawn but not used)
Firearms:
- use of conventional firearms (including where it was aimed but not fired)
Other:
- use of dogs (including where a dog was deployed but did not come into contact with the person)
- other or improvised tactics
See the user guide for more details on tactics, including a tactics glossary.
1. Main findings
In the year ending 31 March 2023, there were 659,372 recorded incidents in which a police officer used force. Whilst this is an 8% increase compared with the year ending 31 March 2022, it is likely due to a continued improvement in the recording of use of force since the data collection began in the year ending 31 March 2018.
Restraint tactics (for example, handcuffing, limb or body restraints, ground restraint) were the most common type of force used (514,315 incidents, 78%). This was a similar proportion to the year ending 31 March 2022 (79%).
80% of use of force incidents involved males, and half (51%) of all incidents involved people aged 18 to 34 years. The rate of use of force was 3 times higher for those from black ethnic groups compared with white individuals.
The most common reason an officer used force was to protect themselves (453,862 incidents, 69%); a similar proportion to the year ending 31 March 2022 (70%).
The most commonly reported factor that impacted on the incident (impact factor) was the person being under the influence of alcohol (244,053 incidents, 37%); a similar proportion to the year ending 31 March 2022 (39%).
The most common outcome was the person being arrested (470,416 incidents, 71%); a similar proportion to the year ending 31 March 2022 (73%).
2. Information about these statistics
One use of force incident refers to ‘one officer’s use of force on one person’. More than one type of force may have been used in one incident.
As well as the tactics used, officers must also record:
- the person’s details (age, gender, ethnicity and physical or mental health condition, as perceived by the reporting officer)
- the reasons for using force and other impact factors
- outcomes
- locations
- injuries to the person involved in the incident, and to officers
Statistics on police use of force do not include incidents where force was used in designated public order events (where officers may use force over a period of time against a person not subsequently apprehended). See the user guide for more information.
Limitations of these statistics
Whilst these statistics provide a national picture of police use of force in England and Wales, and coverage is considered to be good, there are some limitations; for example they cannot tell us how many people had force used on them, and injuries and outcomes cannot be linked to individual tactics. See the user guide for more details.
Statisticians in the Home Office work closely with police forces and the National Police Chiefs’ Council (NPCC) to improve the quality and completeness of these statistics.
Devon and Cornwall police transitioned to a new record management system in November 2022 and were only able to provide use of force data from 1 April 2022 to 14 November 2022. To enable their data to remain comparable with previous years, data for 15 November 2022 to 31 March 2023 was estimated from a random sample taken from the data they were able to provide.
2.1 Official statistics classification
Police use of force statistics are classified as official statistics. This is the sixth year of their publication and the third year the statistics have been published following a 3-year ‘official statistics in development’ phase. With the exception of CED (Conducted Energy Device, for example TASER ®) data, which has been collected consistently since the year ending 31 March 2018, the accompanying Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables include data for the years ending 31 March 2021 onwards. Due to the developmental nature of the collection, data prior to this is not comparable.
More information on official statistics is available in the user guide.
3. Use of force incidents and tactics
Police officers who deploy any force tactics must report the details of their own use of force.
3.1 Total number of use of force incidents increased by 8%
There were 659,372 recorded incidents where a police officer reported the use of force on an individual in England and Wales in the year ending 31 March 2023. This compares with 608,164 in the year ending 31 March 2022, an increase of 51,208 (+8%).
Of the 43 police forces in England and Wales, 30 (70%) reported an increase in use of force incidents compared with the year ending 31 March 2022. Feedback from police forces and analysis of their force level data shows that these increases are likely due in part to the continued improvement in the recording of the most common use of force tactics (for example restraint, unarmed skills and other tactics) within some police force areas.
3.2 Number of tactics used in use of force incidents increased by 7%
There were 958,356 use of force tactics reported within the 659,372 use of force incidents, with most incidents involving 1 or 2 tactics. This was an increase in tactics of 7% (+64,466) compared with the year ending 31 March 2022, driven by increases in the most common tactics (restraint +32,951, unarmed skills +16,822 and other tactics +15,261), likely due in part to the continued improvement in the recording of these tactics.
There was also an increase in firearms tactics, from 5,435 in the year ending 31 March 2022 to 5,890 in the year ending 31 March 2023 (+455, +8%; including both where the firearm was aimed but not fired (from 4,880 to 5,477; +597), and where it was fired (from 3 to 11; +8)). As a proportion of all tactics, firearms tactics remained the same as the year ending 31 March 2022 (0.6%).
There were small decreases in the number of times less lethal weapons (-2%) and tactics involving other equipment (-1%) were used, compared with the year ending 31 March 2022.
Figure 1: Number of times tactics were used in use of force incidents, by tactic group, England and Wales, years ending 31 March 2021 to 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 1
Notes:
- The number of tactics does not sum to the total number of incidents, as multiple tactics can be used in an incident.
- Less lethal weapons include Conducted Energy Device (CED, for example TASER ®), including where it was used without being discharged and Attenuating Energy Projectile (AEP), including where it was drawn but not used.
- Other tactics include the use of dogs and other or improvised tactics such as vehicles or horses.
- Firearms are the use of conventional firearms, including where the firearm was aimed or fired. Information on the number of times a firearm was intentionally discharged at persons is published in Police use of firearms, England and Wales, April 2022 to March 2023.
- See the Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables for full list of tactics included within groups.
Restraint was the most common tactic type (602,271 tactics, 63% of use of force tactics). The majority of restraint tactics involved handcuffing (77% of restraint tactics), which accounted for almost half (49%) of all use of force tactics and compares with 47% in the year ending 31 March 2022. 65% of handcuffing was compliant (where the individual does not resist and follows requests) and 34% was non-compliant (compliancy was not stated for 1% of handcuffing tactics); this compares with 62% compliant and 36% non-compliant in the year ending 31 March 2022.
Unarmed skills were the second most common tactic type, reported 221,078 times (23% of tactics; the same proportion as the year ending 31 March 2022). These include escorting the individual, distraction strikes with the hands or feet, and pressure point and joint locks.
Other tactics were the third most common tactic type, reported 58,643 times (6% of tactics; 5% in the year ending 31 March 2022) and can include the use of dogs and other or improvised tactics. The +15,261 increase in other tactics was driven by an increase in ‘other or improvised’ tactics, which is when an officer uses tactics which are not otherwise listed, and may also include the use of horses or vehicles, for example. Feedback from some forces shows that recent improvements in their recording systems have enabled better recording of these tactics.
Data quality
The number of incidents does not show how many individual people experienced police use of force; it shows one officer’s use of force on one person.
4. Use of force by personal characteristics
Due to the nature of incidents where police officers use force, self-reported characteristics are often not known or recorded at the time of the incident. In addition, use of force reports are often recorded independently of other police recording systems. Therefore the personal characteristics of the person that force was used on are as perceived by the reporting officer.
4.1 Half of use of force incidents involved people aged 18 to 34 years
In the year ending 31 March 2023, half (51%) of recorded use of force incidents involved people aged 18 to 34 years (334,642 incidents). 11% of incidents (74,470) involved those aged 17 and under, and of these, 763 were aged under 11 (0.1% of all incidents). Overall, the age demographic for use of force incidents remained similar to the year ending 31 March 2022.
Figure 2 shows that people aged 18 to 34 years were the group most over-represented in use of force incidents (51%) compared with the overall population of England and Wales (22%).
Figure 2: Population and use of force by age of person involved, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 2; Office for National Statistics (ONS) 2021 census
Figure 3 and table 1 show use of force tactics by age group. The use of restraint tactics was proportionally lower in the youngest and oldest age groups (35% for those aged under 11 and 57% for those aged 65 and over). These groups experienced a higher proportion of unarmed skills and other or improvised tactics (see the user guide for more details on these tactics). This may be evidence of officers using alternative tactics to handcuffing on the youngest and oldest age groups, as per police guidance on personal safety.
There were 6 incidents that involved CEDs in the under 11 age group. The CED was not discharged in any of these incidents.
Figure 3: Proportion of tactics used by type of tactic and age of person involved, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 2
Notes:
- Some tactics have been grouped - see the Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables for details of groupings.
- Proportions of less than 2% are not labelled.
Table 1: Proportion of each tactic group by age of person involved, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
| Proportion of tactic experienced by group | under 11 | 11 to 17 | 18 to 34 | 35 to 49 | 50 to 64 | 65 and over | Age not reported | Total | Times tactic group used |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Restraint | 0.1% | 11% | 52% | 29% | 7% | 0.7% | 0.9% | 100% | 602,271 |
| Unarmed skills | 0.2% | 12% | 51% | 27% | 7% | 1% | 2% | 100% | 221,078 |
| Other equipment | 0.02% | 7% | 54% | 29% | 6% | 0.5% | 3% | 100% | 35,787 |
| Less lethal weapons | 0.02% | 9% | 53% | 28% | 7% | 0.8% | 2% | 100% | 34,687 |
| Firearms | 0.02% | 9% | 60% | 22% | 7% | 1% | 2% | 100% | 5,890 |
| Other | 0.3% | 12% | 50% | 27% | 7% | 1% | 3% | 100% | 58,643 |
| % of incidents involving group | 0.1% | 11% | 51% | 28% | 7% | 0.9% | 1% | 100% |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 2
Table 1 shows that 11% of incidents involved those aged 11 to 17. This group experienced proportionally fewer less-lethal weapons (9%) and firearms tactics (9%) compared with other tactics. Proportions were similar to the year ending 31 March 2022.
People aged between 18 and 34 years accounted for 51% of all use of force incidents and experienced a higher proportion of police use of less lethal weapons (53%) and firearms (60%) compared with other tactics. These proportions were 56% and 61% respectively in the year ending 31 March 2022.
4.2 80% of police use of force incidents involved males
The use of force data collection gives 3 options for the perceived gender of the person:
- female
- male
- other (this may include people who are perceived to be non-binary or where the person’s gender is unclear)
The data collection includes the gender of the person as perceived by the reporting officer, rather than the sex. ‘Sex’ can be considered to refer to whether someone is male or female based on their physiology. ‘Gender’ refers to a social construct or sense of self that takes a wider range of forms.
Of the 659,372 recorded use of force incidents, 80% involved males (528,078 incidents), a similar proportion to the year ending 31 March 2022 (81%). Males comprise 49% of the population of England and Wales. 18% of use of force incidents involved females (17% in the year ending 31 March 2022) and in 2% of incidents gender was not reported, the same proportion as the year ending 31 March 2022.
Figure 4: Proportion of tactics used, by type, and gender of person involved, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 3
Notes:
- Some of the tactics have been grouped - see the Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables for groupings.
- Proportions of less than 2% are not labelled.
Table 2 shows that whilst males accounted for 80% of incidents, they experienced a higher proportion of police use of less lethal weapons (90%) and firearms (92%) compared with other tactics. Proportions were similar to the year ending 31 March 2022.
Table 2: Proportion of tactics experienced, by type, and gender of person involved, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
| Proportion of tactic experienced by group | Male | Female | Other | Gender not reported | Total | Times tactic group used |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Restraint | 81% | 17% | 0.2% | 1% | 100% | 602,271 |
| Unarmed skills | 75% | 22% | 0.4% | 2% | 100% | 221,078 |
| Other equipment | 84% | 12% | 0.9% | 3% | 100% | 35,787 |
| Less lethal weapons | 90% | 8% | 0.4% | 2% | 100% | 34,687 |
| Firearms | 92% | 6% | 0.2% | 1% | 100% | 5,890 |
| Other | 73% | 23% | 1% | 3% | 100% | 58,643 |
| % of incidents involving group | 80% | 18% | 0.3% | 2% | 100% |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 3
4.3 Use of force incidents increased across all ethnic groups
The ethnicity of the person that force was used on is as perceived by the reporting officer.
Table 3 shows the number and proportion of use of force incidents by perceived ethnic group. In the year ending 31 March 2023, 7% of use of force incidents involved someone from an Asian ethnic group, 13% from a black ethnic group, 2% from a mixed ethnic group, 73% from a white ethnic group and 3% from an other ethnic group, similar proportions to the year ending 31 March 2022.
Table 3: Use of force incidents by ethnicity, years ending 31 March 2022 and 2023
| Perceived ethnicity | Year ending 31 March 2022 | Year ending 31 March 2023 |
|---|---|---|
| Asian (or Asian British) | 42,386 (7%) | 47,122 (7%) |
| Black (or Black British) | 82,810 (14%) | 84,858 (13%) |
| Mixed ethnic group | 13,336 (2%) | 14,172 (2%) |
| White | 444,374 (73%) | 484,318 (73%) |
| Other ethnic group | 14,956 (2%) | 16,910 (3%) |
| Ethnicity not reported | 10,302 (2%) | 12,992 (2%) |
| Total incidents | 608,164 (100%) | 659,372 (100%) |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 4
Figure 5 shows the number of use of force incidents in the year ending 31 March 2023 by ethnic group compared with the year ending 31 March 2022. There was an increase in use of force incidents across all ethnic groups over this time, with an increase of 8% in use of force incidents overall.
Figure 5: Number of use of force incidents by perceived ethnicity, years ending 31 March 2022 to 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 4
Figure 6 shows the proportion of tactics used by tactic type and ethnicity.
Figure 6: Proportion of tactics used by type and perceived ethnicity, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 4
Notes:
- Some tactics have been grouped - see the Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables for details on groupings.
- UK population by ethnicity provides details on ethnicity groupings.
- Proportions of less than 3% are not labelled.
Table 4 shows that in the year ending 31 March 2023, people from a black ethnic group (13% of incidents) were involved in proportionally more incidents involving the police use of less lethal weapons (16%) and firearms (24%) and that people from a white ethnic group (73% of incidents) were involved in proportionally fewer incidents involving the police use of less lethal weapons (71%) and firearms (54%) compared with other tactics.
People from an Asian ethnic group (7% of incidents) were involved in proportionally more incidents involving the use of firearms (13%) and proportionally fewer incidents involving the use of less lethal weapons (6%).
These patterns were similar to those seen in the year ending 31 March 2022. See Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables; table 4 for further information.
Table 4: Proportion of tactics experienced by type and perceived ethnicity, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
| Proportion of tactic experienced by group | Asian (or Asian British) | Black (or Black British) | Mixed ethnic group | White | Other ethnic group | Ethnicity not reported | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Restraint | 7% | 13% | 2% | 74% | 3% | 2% | 100% |
| Unarmed skills | 6% | 11% | 2% | 77% | 2% | 2% | 100% |
| Other equipment | 5% | 12% | 2% | 75% | 2% | 4% | 100% |
| Less lethal weapons | 6% | 16% | 2% | 71% | 2% | 2% | 100% |
| Firearms | 13% | 24% | 3% | 54% | 3% | 3% | 100% |
| Other | 5% | 11% | 2% | 77% | 2% | 3% | 100% |
| % of incidents involving group | 7% | 13% | 2% | 73% | 3% | 2% | 100% |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 4
Notes:
- UK population by ethnicity provides details on ethnicity groupings.
4.4 Calculating rate of use of force by ethnicity has several limitations
The rate of use of force can be calculated for different ethnic groups by taking the number of times tactics were used on each ethnic group and dividing by the number of people resident in England and Wales in each ethnic group.
Population figures by ethnicity were released by ONS on 29 November 2022 and used to calculate rates of use of force by police force area and ethnicity for the years ending 31 March 2021 to 2023.
Calculating rates of use of force by ethnicity provides insight into the relative use of force for different ethnic groups. However, it has the following limitations and should be interpreted with caution for the following reasons:
- multiple incidents of use of force may be recorded on the same individual, meaning that the personal characteristics of that individual are over-represented in the use of force dataset
- data is not available on the ethnicity of all people that the police come into contact with, and therefore the calculation does not consider any disproportionality in this group, which is affected by much wider socioeconomic factors, and assumes the distribution is the same as the resident population of England and Wales
- police force areas vary in their ethnicity composition; an average national figure presumes that all use of force tactics and ethnicity groups are spread evenly across forces, whereas these can differ considerably between forces
- within a police force area there can be significant variation in terms of the distribution of different ethnicity groups, which may be masked by force level averages
- rates are influenced by the accuracy of the population figures available at the time
The Metropolitan police force area is the largest in England and Wales. It has a proportionately larger number of Asian, black, mixed and other ethnic groups resident within its police force area (46%) compared with the rest of England and Wales (13%) (calculated from the 2021 census).
Therefore, rates are calculated for the Metropolitan Police separately from other forces in England and Wales.
The following analysis compares the overall rate of use of force per 1,000 people for each ethnic group based on officer perceived ethnicity against the relative rate at which people from each ethnicity experience use of force in comparison to white individuals. A relative rate of 1 indicates a lower likelihood whilst a relative rate greater than 1 indicates a higher likelihood. For example, a relative rate of 2 would mean that a group experiences use of force twice as much as the white group.
4.5 Rate of use of force 3 times higher for those from black ethnic groups
Table 5 shows that use of force tactics involved people from a black ethnic group at a rate 3.3 times higher than those from a white ethnic group in police force areas in England and Wales excluding the Metropolitan Police (3.0 in the year ending 31 March 2022 and 2.9 in the year ending 31 March 2021). Similar to the year ending 31 March 2022, the rate for those from an Asian or mixed ethnic group was lower than the rate for white individuals and the rate for other ethnic groups was similar to the white group.
In the Metropolitan police force area, use of force tactics involved people from a black ethnic group at a rate 3.5 times higher than those from a white ethnic group (3.4 in the year ending 31 March 2022 and 3.5 in the year ending 31 March 2021). Similar to the year ending 31 March 2022, the rate for those from an Asian or mixed ethnic group was lower than the rate for those from a white ethnic group and the rate for other ethnic groups was similar to the white group.
Table 5: Rate of use of force (all tactics) by perceived ethnicity, England and Wales, years ending 31 March 2023 and 31 March 2022
| Asian (or Asian British) | Black (or Black British) | Mixed ethnic group | White | Other ethnic group | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year ending 31 March 2023 | |||||
| England and Wales | 0.8 | 3.4 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
| England and Wales exc. Metropolitan Police | 0.8 | 3.3 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
| Metropolitan Police | 0.8 | 3.5 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 1.3 |
| Year ending 31 March 2022 | |||||
| England and Wales | 0.7 | 3.5 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.1 |
| England and Wales exc. Metropolitan Police | 0.7 | 3.0 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| Metropolitan Police | 0.8 | 3.4 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 1.1 |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 16; ONS 2021 census
Notes:
- Rates for Asian, black, mixed and other ethnic groups are shown in relation to the white ethnic group.
- UK population by ethnicity provides details on ethnicity groupings.
Separate rates of use of force for males aged 18 to 34 were also calculated, as 42% of use of force incidents were recorded for this group (44% in the year ending 31 March 2022). Males aged 18 to 34 and from a black ethnic group were involved in use of force incidents at a rate 3.8 times higher than males from a white ethnic group and aged 18 to 34 in England and Wales. The rate for males aged 18 to 34 for those from an Asian or mixed ethnic group was lower than the rate for white individuals and the rate for other ethnic groups was similar to the white ethnic group.
4.6 Rate of use of force per 1,000 people varied by personal characteristics
The overall rate of use of force in England and Wales was 11 per 1,000 people in the year ending 31 March 2023. This rate was higher for males aged 18 to 34 years (43 per 1,000 people) and, of these, highest for those from a black ethnic group (145 per 1,000 people). This compares with 151 per 1,000 people from a black ethnic group in the year ending 31 March 2022. The rate was 38 per 1,000 people for white males aged 18 to 34 years.
See Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables; table 18 for rates of use of force by age, gender and ethnicity.
Figures 7 and 8 show the proportion of use of force incidents by age and gender compared with the resident population of England and Wales for black and white ethnic groups.
Figure 7: Proportion of use of force incidents by age, gender and black ethnic group, compared with the resident population, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Figure 8: Proportion of use of force incidents by age, gender and white ethnic group, compared with the resident population, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; data table 18; ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: open data table; ONS 2021 census
4.7 Situations in which police use force can include arrests, stop and search and detentions under the mental health act (MHA)
The Home Office collects and publishes information on arrests and stop and search in the annual Police powers and procedures: Stop and search and arrests, England and Wales statistical bulletin, and information on detentions under the mental health act in the annual Police powers and procedures: Other PACE powers, England and Wales statistical bulletin.
Figure 9 shows police use of force, arrests, stop and search and detentions under the MHA by ethnic group (where reported), alongside the prison population and overall population of England and Wales.
People from a black ethnic group were over-represented in use of force incidents (13%) compared with the population of England and Wales (4%), those detained under the mental health act (8%) and those arrested (8%). Proportions were similar across use of force incidents (13%), the England and Wales prison population (13%) and stop and search incidents (14%) for those from a black ethnic group.
People from an Asian ethnic group were under-represented in use of force incidents (7%) compared with the population of England and Wales (9%), the prison population (8%), those arrested (8%) and stop and search incidents (11%).
Figure 9: Ethnicity proportions by population, prison population, use of force, stop and search, arrests and detentions under the MHA, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 4; ONS 2021 census; Home Office ‘Stop and search and arrests, year ending March 2023’; tables A_01c and SS_05; Home Office ‘Other PACE powers data tables, police powers and procedures, year ending 31 March 2022’; table MHA.03a; Ministry of Justice ‘Ethnicity and the criminal justice system, 2020’; table 6.01
Notes:
- One person may appear in multiple datasets, for example where a person is stopped and searched, the person is arrested and force is used.
- ‘Ethnicity not reported’ is not shown in figure 9.
- Data on detentions under the mental health act and the prison population are the most recent available (year ending 31 March 2022 and at 30 June 2020 respectively).
- Proportions of less than 4% are not labelled.
4.8 17% of use of force involved people with a mental health condition
The health condition of the person is based on the perception of the officer involved.
The majority (81%) of reported use of force incidents involved people with no physical or mental health condition (533,420 incidents).
People with mental health conditions accounted for 17% of incidents (16% in the year ending 31 March 2022) and those with physical health conditions accounted for 1% of incidents (the same proportion as the year ending 31 March 2022).
People with mental health conditions (including those with mental and physical health conditions) were involved in proportionally more incidents involving the use of less lethal weapons (20%), but fewer involving the use of firearms (10%).
Figure 10 shows tactics used in use of force incidents by health condition of the person involved.
Figure 10: Proportion of tactics by type and health condition, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; data table 5
Notes:
- Some of the tactics have been grouped - see the Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables for groupings.
- Proportions of less than 3% are not labelled.
Table 6: Proportion of tactic experienced by type and health condition, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
| Proportion of tactic experienced by group | No health condition | Mental health condition | Physical health condition | Physical and mental health condition | Not reported | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Restraint | 81% | 17% | 0.7% | 0.4% | 0.8% | 100% |
| Unarmed skills | 75% | 22% | 0.7% | 0.7% | 1% | 100% |
| Other equipment | 77% | 19% | 0.7% | 0.7% | 2% | 100% |
| Less lethal weapons | 78% | 20% | 0.6% | 0.5% | 1% | 100% |
| Firearms | 89% | 9% | 0.6% | 0.4% | 0.2% | 100% |
| Other | 74% | 22% | 0.8% | 0.7% | 2% | 100% |
| % of incidents involving group | 81% | 17% | 0.7% | 0.5% | 1% | 100% |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; data table 5
The proportion of use of force incidents involving someone with a mental health condition varied by ethnic group. 19% of white individuals had a mental health condition, 14% of those from a black ethnic group, 13% of those from an Asian or other ethnic group and 15% of those from mixed ethnic group.
5. Use of force by reason, impact factors and outcomes
Officers have the option to record multiple reasons, impact factors and outcomes relating to their use of force within an incident, for example, an officer may use force to effect arrest and protect themselves.
5.1 Protection most common reason for using force
The most reported reasons for using force were:
- for the reporting officer’s own protection (453,862 incidents, 69%)
- the protection of other officers (385,894 incidents, 59%)
- to assist in making an arrest (344,394 incidents, 52%)
These proportions remained similar to the year ending 31 March 2022.
Figure 11: Top 5 reasons for using force, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 6
Notes:
- Figure 11 shows the 5 most common reasons only.
- Multiple reasons can apply in an incident, therefore percentages sum to more than 100%.
In incidents involving the police use of firearms, including where a firearm was aimed or fired, the most common reasons for using force also included protecting the public and preventing an offence.
5.2 Alcohol reported as having an impact in over a third of incidents
Factors that impacted on the use of force incident are recorded by officers and include the possession of weapons, alcohol, drugs, mental health, prior knowledge relating to the incident, the size, gender or build of the person, acute behavioural disturbance, crowds and other impact factors. Multiple impact factors can be recorded for each incident.
The most commonly reported impact factors were:
- alcohol (244,053 incidents, 37%)
- the size, gender or build of the person involved (195,539 incidents, 30%)
- drugs (189,516 incidents, 29%)
These proportions were similar to the year ending 31 March 2022; alcohol 39%, size, gender or build 31% and drugs 30%.
Where firearms or less lethal weapons (CEDs and AEPs) were used, the most common impact factor recorded was the person being in possession of a weapon (89% of firearms incidents and 61% of less lethal weapons incidents).
5.3 Most common outcome of use of force incidents was person arrested
The most common outcome across all incidents where force was used was that the person was arrested (470,416 incidents, 71%). This compares with 73% in the year ending 31 March 2022.
‘Other’ was the second most common outcome (95,850 incidents, 15%), and compares with 17% in the year ending 31 March 2022. This could include the person being cautioned, or de-arrested following further information, for example. See the user guide for further details.
Figure 12: Number of incidents, by outcome, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 8
Notes:
- Multiple outcomes can apply to an incident.
6. CED (Conducted Energy Device) use
Officers must record when a CED (for example, a TASER ®) is used in an incident, including when it is not fired (non-discharge uses).
CED use is recorded against 7 categories: drawn, aimed, arced and red-dot (non-discharge uses - no electricity is discharged into the person) and direct contact mode, fired and angle drive-stun (discharge uses).
For definitions of these uses, see the user guide.
The statistics present the ‘highest’ use of CED from each incident. For example, if a CED is drawn, aimed, red-dotted and fired, this use will appear under ‘fired’ only.
6.1 Where use type was stated, CEDs discharged in 9% of CED incidents
CEDs were used in 33,531 incidents in the year ending 31 March 2023, a small decrease compared with the year ending 31 March 2022 (-745; -2%). This included a 2% (-527) decrease in non-discharge uses and a 7% (-234) decrease in discharge uses. Use type was not stated in 3% of CED uses, the same proportion as the year ending 31 March 2022.
Where the use type was stated, the CED was discharged in 9% (2,978) of incidents and not discharged in 91% (29,456) of incidents. In the year ending 31 March 2022, the CED was discharged in 10% of incidents and not discharged in 90%.
There were 18 CED discharges using direct contact mode in the year ending 31 March 2023, fewer than in the year ending 31 March 2022 (30).
6.2 Decrease in CED use for second consecutive year
Figure 13 shows that CED use doubled from the year ending 31 March 2018 to the year ending 31 March 2021 (+17,503; +103%), likely reflecting a combination of increases in the number of CED-trained officers and CED availability across police forces in England and Wales, and improvements in recording following the introduction of the national use of force data collection.
Since the year ending 31 March 2021, there have been small decreases for 2 consecutive years (-2% in the year ending 31 March 2023 and -0.4% in the year ending 31 March 2022), which may indicate that the impact of the factors included above has levelled off.
Figure 13: Number of times CEDs were used, England and Wales, year ending 31 December 2013 to year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 13; Police use of TASER ® X26 conducted energy devices statistics, England and Wales, collection
The statistics on police use of CEDs that were previously collected and published by the Home Office on a calendar year basis up to 2016 (inclusive) are available on GOV.UK.
6.3 Once drawn, CED discharge use similar across ethnicities
Once drawn, CEDs were discharged in 9% of CED incidents involving people from white or mixed ethnic groups, in 8% of incidents involving people from a black ethnic group and 7% of incidents involving people from an Asian or other ethnic group. These proportions were similar in the year ending 31 March 2022.
Table 7: CED use, by type of use and perceived ethnicity, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
| CED use type | Times CED used | Non-discharge | Discharge | Not stated |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asian (or Asian British) | 2,146 (6%) |
1,959 (91%) |
151 (7%) |
36 (2%) |
| Black (or Black British) | 5,375 (16%) |
4,834 (90%) |
442 (8%) |
99 (2%) |
| Mixed ethnic group | 799 (2%) |
698 (87%) |
70 (9%) |
31 (4%) |
| White | 23,647 (71%) |
20,551 (87%) |
2,203 (9%) |
893 (4%) |
| Other ethnic group | 796 (2%) |
715 (90%) |
55 (7%) |
26 (3%) |
| Ethnicity not reported | 768 (2%) |
699 (91%) |
57 (7%) |
12 (2%) |
| Total | 33,531 (100%) |
29,456 (88%) |
2,978 (9%) |
1,097 (3%) |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; data table 4
Notes:
- Drawn, aimed, arced and red-dot are non-discharge uses as no electricity is discharged into the person. Direct contact mode, fired, and angle drive-stun are discharge uses.
- Where percentages have been rounded, they may not sum to the total.
6.4 Rate of CED use highest for black ethnic group
The rate of CED use, including discharge (for example, fired, direct contact mode) and non-discharge uses (for example, drawn, aimed, red-dot) is calculated for different ethnic groups by taking the number of times a CED was used on each ethnic group, and dividing by the number of people within each ethnic group for a given population. Whilst this calculation provides insight into the relative use of CED for different ethnic groups, it has the same limitations as the relative use of force for different ethnic groups as outlined in section 4.4 of this release, and figures should be interpreted with the same level of caution.
Incidents where a CED was used involved someone from a black ethnic group at a rate 4.2 times higher than someone from a white ethnic group in police force areas in England and Wales (excluding the Metropolitan Police), and at a rate 4.4 times higher in the Metropolitan police force area, when compared with the 2021 census. These rates were 4.1 and 4.7 respectively in the year ending 31 March 2022.
CED discharge incidents (where the CED is fired, used in direct contact mode or used to deliver an angled drive-stun) involved someone from a black ethnic group at a rate 3.9 times higher than someone from a white ethnic group in police force areas in England and Wales (excluding the Metropolitan Police), and in the Metropolitan police force area, when compared with the 2021 census. These rates were 3.8 and 4.1 respectively in the year ending 31 March 2022.
The Metropolitan Police is the largest police force in England and Wales and therefore had the largest number of CED uses (6,839 uses; 20% of the England and Wales total). It also has a proportionately larger number of people from Asian, black, mixed and other ethnic groups resident within its police force area (46%) compared with the rest of England and Wales (13%) (calculated from the 2021 census). Table 8 shows the rate of CED uses for the Metropolitan Police separately from England and Wales.
Table 8: Rate of CED use, by type of use and perceived ethnicity, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
| Asian (or Asian British) | Black (or Black British) | Mixed ethnic group | White | Other ethnic group | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All CED use | |||||
| England and Wales | 0.8 | 4.6 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.3 |
| England and Wales exc. Metropolitan Police | 0.8 | 4.2 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.3 |
| Metropolitan Police | 0.7 | 4.4 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
| CED discharges | |||||
| England and Wales | 0.6 | 4.1 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| England and Wales exc. Metropolitan Police | 0.7 | 3.9 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.9 |
| Metropolitan Police | 0.4 | 3.9 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| CED non-discharges | |||||
| England and Wales | 0.8 | 4.8 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.4 |
| England and Wales exc. Metropolitan Police | 0.8 | 4.3 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.3 |
| Metropolitan Police | 0.8 | 4.5 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 13; ONS 2021 census
Notes:
- Rates for Asian, black, mixed and other ethnic groups are shown relative to the white ethnic group.
- Details on ethnicity groupings are available from UK population by ethnicity.
Separate rates of CED use (including both non-discharge and discharge uses) for males aged 18 to 34 were also calculated, as over half (53%) of CED incidents were recorded for this group. The rate for those from a black ethnic group, male and aged 18 to 34 was 4.8 times higher than those from a white ethnic group, male and aged 18 to 34 in England and Wales. The rate for males aged 18 to 34 for those from an Asian or mixed ethnic group was lower than the rate for those from a white ethnic group and the rate for other ethnic groups was similar to the white group.
Rates for CED use involving males aged 18 to 34 by ethnicity were similar to those calculated for the overall population of England and Wales.
6.5 Possession of a weapon most common impact factor in CED incidents
Possession of a weapon was reported as an impact factor in 61% of CED incidents, with around half of these incidents involving those aged 18 to 34 (51%).
Figure 14 shows the ages of those involved in CED incidents, and where possession of a weapon was an impact factor. Possession of a weapon was more often an impact factor in CED incidents in the youngest and oldest age groups.
Figure 14: Percentage of incidents involving CED use and an impact factor of possession of a weapon, by age group, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: open data table’
Possession of a weapon was recorded as an impact factor in:
- 18% of all incidents involving people from an Asian or mixed ethnic group
- 26% of all incidents involving people from a black ethnic group
- 12% of all incidents involving people from a white ethnic group
- 17% of all incidents involving people from an other ethnic group
6.6 CED use similar across ethnicities for those with a mental health condition
People with a mental health condition (17% of all use of force incidents) were involved in proportionally more incidents involving the use of CED (20%) and incidents where the CED was discharged (28%).
In incidents involving someone with a mental health condition, CED use was similar across ethnicities (6% for people from Asian, black or white ethnic groups, and 5% for those from a mixed or other ethnic group) and age groups (between 6% and 7% for those aged 18 and over and lower for those aged 17 and under).
7. Incidents by police force area and location
The number of use of force incidents in a police forces’ area is influenced by the size of its population and a range of other socioeconomic factors.
7.1 One in five use of force incidents reported by Metropolitan Police
The number of incidents reported by each police force ranged from 2,066 in Warwickshire (0.3% of total incidents) to 128,111 in the Metropolitan police force area (19% of total incidents). Cleveland reported the most use of force relative to its population, with 31 incidents per 1,000 people, and Wiltshire reported the least, with 3 incidents per 1,000 people. Whilst the use of force data collection is now well established, its relative infancy means that it is likely that the recording of use of force data is still improving in some forces.
Figure 15: Use of force incidents per 1,000 people, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 12; ONS 2021 census
Notes:
- City of London are not shown due to the small resident population of the area relative to the transient or visiting population.
7.2 Absolute and relative rate of use of force by ethnicity varied by police force area
The national rates of use of force by ethnicity do not reflect the difference in ethnic diversity across individual police force areas. For example, police force areas with a relatively low number of incidents involving those from a black ethnic group can have a relatively high rate of use of force for this group, if they have a small black population. Conversely, police forces with a relatively high number of incidents involving those from a black ethnic group can have a relatively low rate of use of force for this group, if they have a larger black population.
Figure 16 shows the rate and relative rate of use of force incidents for those from a black ethnic group for individual police forces.
Figure 16: Use of force rate per 1,000 people and relative rates for people perceived as black, by police force area, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: open data table ONS 2021 census
Notes:
- City of London are not shown due to the small resident population of the area relative to the transient or visiting population.
- Labels are shown for police force areas with rates at the lower and upper end of the scale.
7.3 Location of use of force varied by tactic type
Over half (57%) of use of force incidents included a public location (373,950 incidents). A street or highway was the most common location across all tactics, apart from shield which more commonly included a dwelling (42%) or custody block (27%) as a location.
The use of less lethal weapons and firearms were recorded predominantly in public locations (mostly a street or highway; 47%) and dwellings (36%).
Figure 17: Number of times location type was reported, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 9
Notes:
- Locations have been grouped - see the Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables for groupings.
- Where multiple tactics and locations are reported, it is not possible to identify the location in which each tactic was used.
7.4 11% of use of force incidents included custody block location
Custody block was listed as a location in 11% (69,823) of use of force incidents. 25% of incidents involving a custody block also included additional locations, so it does not necessarily follow that all tactics used in the incident were used within the custody block.
Table 9 compares total tactics used in all locations with those that included custody block as a location.
Table 9: Proportion of tactics used in all locations by type and those with custody block listed, England and Wales, year ending 31 March 2023
| Total tactics reported | Custody block reported as a location | |
|---|---|---|
| Restraint | 63% | 53% |
| Unarmed skills | 23% | 35% |
| Other equipment | 4% | 4% |
| Less lethal weapons | 4% | 0.3% |
| Firearms | 0.6% | 0.01% |
| Other | 6% | 9% |
Source: Home Office ‘Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 9
Notes:
- Tactics have been grouped - see the Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables for groupings.
- Incidents with custody block listed as a location may also include additional locations.
Incidents in which custody block was listed as a location (but not necessarily the only location) featured a higher proportion of unarmed skills (35%) compared with use of force incidents overall (23%).
Restraint tactics, less lethal weapons and firearms were proportionately less likely to be used in custody blocks compared with use of force incidents overall. See Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables’; table 9 for further information.
8. Injuries
Officers record if they or the person involved in the use of force incident were injured as a result of the use of force.
Data quality
Some officers reported ‘no injury’ sustained due to their use of force, but included they received a ‘minor’ injury. This could be because officers recorded injuries (to themselves or to the person involved) even when these did not occur as a result of the use of force incident. The same may be true for the reporting of hospitalisations as an outcome.
Injury level is recorded in the following categories:
Minor
An injury which may require some simple first aid but does not meet the definition of severe.
Severe
A fracture, deep cut, deep laceration or an injury causing damage to an internal organ or the impairment of any bodily function. In addition, an injury which may, after initial assessment at hospital, require formal admission to hospital.
8.1 3% of use of force incidents involved injury to officers
Of the 659,372 use of force incidents recorded, 19,488 (3%) involved injury to the officer; no change from the proportion in the year ending 31 March 2022. Of the 19,488:
- 92% (18,003) were minor injuries (94% in the previous year)
- 2% (299) were severe injuries (2% in the previous year)
- 6% (1,186) had no injury level recorded (4% in the previous year)
A full breakdown is provided in Police use of force statistics, England and Wales: April 2022 to March 2023: data tables; table 10.
8.2 4% of use of force incidents involved injury to person
Of the 659,372 use of force incidents recorded, 4% (29,104) involved injury to the person involved. This compares with 5% in the year ending 31 March 2022. Of the 29,104:
- 92% (26,834) were minor injuries (96% in the previous year)
- 2% (453) were severe injuries (2% in the previous year)
- 6% (1,817) had no injury level recorded (2% in the previous year)
Under the Police Reform Act 2002, police forces in England and Wales have a statutory duty to refer all incidents involving a death or serious injury to the Independent Office for Police Conduct (IOPC) for consideration. The IOPC will determine whether it is necessary to investigate and who should carry out the investigation. Some matters are investigated by police forces and some are investigated by the IOPC. The IOPC National Statistics report on deaths during or following police contact provides more comprehensive information.
9. Developments, feedback and enquiries
Developments to the police use of force statistics include:
- for the first time, all police forces were able to provide full person and incident details alongside their CED data; previously some data was analysed separately and reported with caveats
- 2021 census data was used for all population estimates; in the April 2021 to March 2022 publication some mid-2019 population projections were used due to the timing of 2021 census data releases
Statistical or public enquiries
Home Office statistical practice is regulated by the Office for Statistics Regulation (OSR). OSR sets the standards of trustworthiness, quality and value in the Code of Practice for Statistics that all producers of official statistics should adhere to. You are welcome to contact us directly at PolicingStatistics@homeoffice.gov.uk with any comments about how we meet these standards. Alternatively, you can contact OSR by emailing regulation@statistics.gov.uk or via the OSR website.
Frequency of release: Annual
Forthcoming releases: Home Office statistics release calendar
Home Office responsible statistician: Jenny Bradley
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