Policy paper

Crab and lobster fisheries management plan

Published 14 December 2023

This was published under the 2022 to 2024 Sunak Conservative government

Executive summary

Context

Our sea fish and shellfish stocks are an important natural resource. We aim to work with the fishing sector and wider stakeholders to ensure these stocks are harvested sustainably and supported by a healthy marine environment, so they continue to provide benefits into the future.

Fisheries management plans (FMPs) are a requirement of the Fisheries Act 2020 (‘the Act’), the UK Joint Fisheries Statement (JFS), and a commitment in the Environmental Improvement Plan 2023 for England. FMPs assess the status of stocks and must set out policies to restore stocks to, or maintain them at, sustainable levels.

The crab and lobster FMP has been prepared for the purpose of meeting the requirements set out in the Act. It was prepared in partnership with the Sea Fish Industry Authority (Seafish) in collaboration with the Crab and Lobster Management Group (CMG), which brings together industry, government and scientists. Feedback from the CMG and from the wider sector, during stakeholder engagement events, showed the need for better management of crab and lobster fisheries in England.

Defra undertook a public consultation on the draft FMP in July 2023 in accordance with the requirement set out in Schedule 1 Part 3 of the Act. Defra prepared this first published version 1 of the FMP having had regard for the representations received during that consultation.

What is an FMP?

An FMP is an evidence-based action plan that charts a course to sustainable fisheries for current and future generations. The FMP is a long-term plan that must be reviewed and, if necessary, revised at least every six years. It sets out both a longer-term vision and goals for the fishery (or fisheries), together with the policies and management interventions necessary to achieve these goals in the shorter term.

While having a primary focus on achieving sustainable stocks, Defra intends to use FMPs to help tackle environmental, social, and economic issues associated with our fisheries. FMPs will significantly enhance our ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management and secure the economic and cultural benefits we gain from fish and from fishing.

To remain effective, plans will be regularly reviewed and updated to ensure they respond to new evidence and practical experience. 

Why an FMP for crabs and lobsters? 

The crab and lobster industry recognised in 2019 that action was needed to better manage harvesting of our crab and lobster stocks. With support from Seafish and Defra, the CMG was formed in 2020 to consider specific actions. This early work and engagement allowed the decision to be taken to channel the work into an FMP. Crab and lobster have been prioritised for an FMP due to the stocks’ vulnerability to over-exploitation, the economic value of these fisheries, and a lack of evidence to properly assess and monitor the state of the stocks.

The Crab and lobster fisheries in English waters contribute socially and economically to coastal communities through employment and recreational fishing interests. Improved management action is therefore needed to protect crab and lobster and secure their future and the future of the industry that depends on them.

Summary of the state of stocks

The FMP used the available evidence on crab and lobster stocks and their fisheries around England to assess the status of the stocks, to identify existing management measures and set out policies and actions to manage the fisheries.

Differing levels of evidence are available across the different crab stocks. Sufficient evidence is available to carry out a stock assessment for some stocks but not others. Sufficient evidence is available to carry out stock assessments for 5 out of 6 lobster fishery units. There are existing stock assessments for crab and lobster that provide a reasonable understanding of spawning stock biomass and, at a broad level, exploitation rates. Updated stock assessments will be used when available.

Evidence available in 2023 suggests that crab and lobster stocks are experiencing high exploitation rates which could exceed those required to maintain stocks at maximum sustainable yield (MSY). However, there are still significant gaps in our understanding of these important fisheries. While work is under way to improve the quantity and quality of data, there are still significant uncertainties and assumptions in current stock assessment methodologies, meaning outputs may be less certain. At the time of publication, accurately assessing the impact of current fishing effort on long-term stock viability is a challenge. 

This FMP combines a long-term vision to achieve MSY with measures to reach and maintain this goal. The plan brings together the complete portfolio of existing management measures for crab and lobster along with all available science and evidence. It also highlights where gaps exist and what steps are required to fill those gaps to enable the necessary protection for stocks now and for the long term.

This FMP sets out a precautionary and adaptive approach to long-term management to create sustainable crab and lobster fisheries. 

Current management measures

Crab and lobster are non-quota stocks, which means that fishing of these stocks is not currently subject to catch limits. The management landscape for crab and lobster in England is highly fragmented, with a range of national and regional management measures. These measures, variously applied across differing jurisdictions, include licences to fish for shellfish, days at sea effort limits, minimum conservation reference sizes (MCRSs), pot limitations, vessel length restrictions, and specific conservation regulations, such as de-clawing bans or mandatory escape gaps. Most of the species included in this FMP are caught in targeted pot and trap fisheries with some, such as crawfish and spider crab, caught using nets. 

The existing management regimes are largely based on administrative boundaries, such as Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authorities (IFCA) jurisdictions or administrative boundaries between devolved administrations, and do not necessarily reflect biological boundaries between stocks. This approach means that fisheries exploiting the same biological stocks may be subject to different management restrictions depending on where fishing activity occurs.   

Key goals and proposed actions

Stakeholders noted that a ‘one size fits all’ approach to management is not appropriate for a fishery characterised by local stocks and fleet variation. So regional- or local-based management is needed (with harmonisation across jurisdictional boundaries where appropriate), together with better species and fisheries data, to ensure the long-term sustainability of these fisheries. The FMP sets out crab and lobster specific objectives that address specific requirements for crab and lobster fisheries in English waters. Specifically, the FMP sets out the following actions.  

Improving the evidence base

Significant gaps remain in our understanding of English crab and lobster stocks and fisheries, both in terms of fishing activity and its level of impact on stocks. The crab and lobster research plan^{[footnote 1]} details both existing  evidence and research, and evidence and research needs. It highlights where knowledge and evidence gaps exist, and what is required to fill those gaps to provide the necessary protection for stocks now and in the long term. These evidence gaps include the development of data collection programmes, defining stock boundaries, and improving stock assessments.

The research plan will build on existing research and data for crabs and lobsters so that management is driven by a comprehensive harvest strategy, reliable stock assessments, and a consistent ongoing data collection and research programme.

Initial management measures

These are designed to contribute to objectives set out in the FMP in the short term and to increase protection for stocks in line with the Act’s precautionary objective.

The key proposals are:

• exploring opportunities for harmonising lobster and crawfish MCRSs with existing IFCA measures in English waters
• prohibiting the landing of soft brown crab for bait
• piloting finer-scale management of brown crab and European lobster fisheries in certain areas, based on spatial scale rather than administrative boundaries
• considering wider effort management measures

Longer-term measures

Over time, as both the evidence base and monitoring of management effectiveness improves, the process of implementing more targeted measures will be developed through the lifetime and future iterations of this FMP. The FMP proposes an adaptive, iterative management approach in which management decisions are implemented, reviewed and refined with new data, to deliver long-term sustainability.

Future measures will focus on ensuring stocks are not targeted  beyond sustainable limits. Seasonal closures, effort limits, and pot and catch limits are some of the interventions under consideration, which will be developed in collaboration with the CMG and relevant partners. 

Wider issues and environmental impacts 

All FMPs are subject to legal obligations for environmental protection arising from the Habitats Regulations, Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009, Marine Strategy Regulations 2010 and the Environment Act 2021. These requirements are in addition to the FMP contributing to the environmental objectives of the Fisheries Act 2020.

This FMP will contribute to commitments to improve our marine ecosystem set out in the Environmental Improvement Plan 2023 for England and the UK Marine Strategy.

The crab and lobster FMP includes objectives that will ensure that the environmental impacts associated with crab and lobster fishing are understood, including wider environmental monitoring of the impacts of potting fisheries. The crab and lobster pot fisheries potentially pose 2 environmental risks, namely:

• bycatch of endangered, threatened and protected (ETP) species
• marine litter from abandoned, lost and otherwise discarded fishing gear

Based on current evidence, both risks are considered low in these fisheries. Where crab and lobster pot fisheries are considered to have an adverse impact on the marine environment, the FMP sets out commitments to avoid, remedy or mitigate such impact. The FMP will apply a consistent approach to managing these environmental impacts, across all waters these fisheries exist in.

Implementation and monitoring 

The actions and measures contained within the crab and lobster FMP will undergo an implementation phase where appropriate mechanisms will be required to deliver them. Such mechanisms could include, for example, voluntary measures, licence conditions, national and regional byelaws, and statutory instruments.

The Act requires the crab and lobster FMP to be reviewed when appropriate, and at least every 6 years. This formal review will assess how the FMP has performed in terms of delivering against the objectives of the Act.

Conclusion

The crab and lobster FMP has been prepared for the purpose of meeting the requirements set out in the Fisheries Act 2020. This statement and the contents of the plan meets the obligation set out in section 6 of the Act. 

This FMP has collated existing management measures and available science and evidence to assess the status of crab and lobster stocks around England, and to determine a sustainable level of exploitation. It is currently difficult to accurately assess the impact that fishing effort is having on long-term stock viability or how to effectively limit effort. The crab and lobster FMP seeks to address this to ensure that MSY can be more accurately assessed, and action taken to maintain stock status at or above this level.

The FMP highlights where knowledge and evidence gaps exist to establish sustainable crab and lobster fisheries, and it sets out the policies and proposed steps to build the evidence base while maintaining or increasing stock levels. The management objectives and associated evidence and research plan guide those seeking to fill those gaps over time. The proposed management interventions seek to apply a precautionary approach to managing harvesting while evidence improves. This FMP aims to deliver significant progress in moving towards the long-term sustainable management of crab and lobster fisheries in English waters. 

Responsibility for delivery of the objectives set out in this FMP will sit across working industry groups, fisheries authorities and governments. This is further detailed in the JFS published in November 2022.  

Foreword

The crab and lobster FMP sets out the road map to achieve long-term sustainable management of brown crab and European lobster stocks in English waters, in line with the objectives in the Fisheries Act 2020 (‘the Act’). The FMP has been prepared in partnership with the Sea Fish Industry Authority (Seafish) in collaboration with the Crab and Lobster Management Group (CMG) – a collaborative forum that brings together industry, researchers, and government regulators and policy makers. The CMG is part of the overarching Shellfish Industry Advisory Group (SIAG). Seafish, on behalf of Defra and the CMG, has also engaged more widely with coastal communities, supply chain businesses, environmental NGOs, and other government agencies on the development of the management objectives detailed in this FMP. Defra gathered further views through a public consultation that included stakeholder engagement events around the coast and on-line.

While the primary focus of this plan is brown crab and European lobster, it also includes within its scope select data-limited shellfish species for which there is currently no formal stock assessment applied. These are spider crab, crawfish, common prawn, and velvet swimming crabs. Collectively this plan is focused on managing shellfish fisheries which contributed £122 million to the UK economy and accounted for 31,000 tonnes of landings in 2021.

Both crab and lobster fisheries have fishery independent time series of core biological data, and there has been some success in establishing biological reference points. However, there are still significant gaps in our understanding of these important fisheries, which is hampering attempts to manage them effectively. Specifically, there is a lack of accurate fishing effort data. There are also still significant uncertainties and assumptions in current stock assessment methodologies (such as a lack of a clear understanding of crab migration), which means outputs may be less certain. This creates a clear challenge in trying to accurately assess the impact that current fishing effort is having on long-term stock viability.

This FMP aims to build on existing research and management for crab and lobster fisheries and to progress to a point where management is driven by a comprehensive harvest strategy underpinned by a reliable stock assessment methodology. This methodology in turn will be supported by a consistent data collection and research programme.

The management objectives in this FMP describe the key stages on that journey and set out the shared commitment that industry and government have for these important fisheries, over the next 6 years. A core principle driving the implementation of the FMP objectives will be adaptive management. This means that as the evidence base improves, management interventions will be more responsive.

The FMP’s shared shellfish principles and crab and lobster fishery objectives are presented in two parts: Shared shellfish principles common to all fisheries, and crab and lobster specific objectives for this FMP.

Structure of the crab and lobster FMP

In terms of navigating this FMP, the key sections are:

• context – this section details how the crab and lobster FMP meets the requirements of the Act and wider legislation and policy initiatives
• scope of the crab and lobster FMP and current status of the fisheries – these sections include details on current fishing methods, fleet characteristics and stock status
• shared shellfish principles – this section outlines the high-level principles developed by the SIAG for the management of all shellfish fisheries
• future fisheries management strategy – this describes the management strategy for these fisheries in English waters, including how the Harvest Standard Specification (HSS) will be applied, and the adaptive approach to ensure appropriate management of fishing effort. This section also details the priority management interventions for this fishery. Some of these interventions will be regulatory but, where appropriate, non-regulatory measures will also apply
• managing environmental considerations – this section details how environmental considerations will be addressed
• implementation, monitoring and review – this section details the approach that will be followed to implement the plan. It also explains how we will measure performance in terms of delivering the plan

The crab and lobster FMP is designed to be a standalone document providing all the necessary information to help readers understand how the English fisheries will be managed over the coming years. The plan summarises relevant information rather than providing all the underlying detail. The public consultation in July 2023 published much of the detailed information available that was used to prepare the draft plan. Relevant information has been summarised in this FMP rather than including or annexing all of the underlying detail. Defra will continue to collate and make available relevant information that underpins the implementation of the FMP over subsequent years.

For reference, there were 6 accompanying documents published as a collated Annex for the public consultation in 2023:

• Evidence statement – details the current available information on these fisheries in English waters
• Evidence and research plan – details the approach to secure the evidence required to support the plan and deliver on the FMP objectives
• Stakeholder engagement report – presents a summary of the stakeholder feedback on the proposed high-level principles and FMP objectives, which was collected during a series of engagement events, held in late 2022
• Shellfish shared principles – developed by the SIAG. These are high-level principles and objectives to guide management common to all shellfish fisheries
• Legislative context and governance – describes the legislative context that applies to the development and implementation of the crab and lobster FMP and gives details about the roles and responsibilities of the Crab and Lobster Management Group in relation to the FMP
• Environmental considerations – details the government’s environmental obligations covering FMPs

The information remains available on Citizen Space, Defra’s online consultation tool.

This FMP has been prepared and published to comply with requirements in the Joint Fisheries Statement and in section 6 of the Fisheries Act 2020. The preparation process had regard for the prevailing Marine Plans (as required by section 58(3) of the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009) and the Environmental Principles (as required by sections 17(5)(a-e) and 19(1) of the Environment Act 2021).

Introduction

The overarching vision for the crab and lobster FMP for English waters is that brown crab, European lobster, and select data-limited shellfish species, for which there are currently no formal stock assessments applied, are managed to ensure their long-term sustainability and economic profitability, while maintaining public confidence in the management of this important resource.

The crab and lobster FMP collates all known and available information on the biological, socio-economic, and environmental status of crab and lobster fisheries in English waters. It establishes the approach that will be taken to ensure that both fisheries are being managed in line with the requirements of the Act and, specifically, the steps that will be taken to address evidence gaps, improve assessment methodologies, and ensure fishing effort is aligned with the health of individual fish stocks. Alongside this, the FMP seeks to ensure that these fisheries are economically viable over the long term, and that both wider community and national benefits are realised from this important resource.  

Achieving sustainable crab and lobster stocks, profitable fisheries and a healthy marine environment will mean changes to how and where crab and lobster fishing occurs (input controls^{[footnote 2]}, and the amount of crab and lobster that can be caught from one year to the next (output controls^{[footnote 3]}).

The purpose of this FMP is to ensure that the most appropriate management measures, based on the best available science and evidence are developed, in collaboration with the CMG, and implemented in consultation with wider stakeholders.

Context  

The crab and lobster FMP has been prepared for the purpose of meeting the requirements set out in the Fisheries Act 2020.

The 2018 Fisheries White Paper: Sustainable fisheries for future generations set a clear ambition for sustainable stewardship and management of UK fisheries that committed to deliver – ‘a more competitive, profitable and sustainable fishing industry across the whole of the UK, setting a gold standard for sustainable fishing around the world’.

The Act requires each FMP to set out policies designed to restore the stock(s) to, or maintain them at, sustainable levels.

The Joint Fisheries Statement (JFS), published in November 2022, sets out further details of the policies the UK fisheries authorities will follow to achieve or contribute to achieving the 8 fisheries objectives in the Act. It includes a list of FMPs, setting out the lead authority for each FMP, the stocks covered and timescales for publication.

In addition to meeting the requirements of the Act, the FMP also supports the implementation of wider commitments on protecting the marine environment, restoring biodiversity, and addressing climate change. In particular, the Environment Improvement Plan 2023 for England highlighted the requirement to deliver FMPs. Each FMP also supports commitments under the UK Marine Policy Statement, the UK Marine Strategy, the marine wildlife bycatch mitigation initiative, and the Climate Change Act 2008.

Further details on the requirements of the Act and wider commitments, and how these relate to this plan were set out in the ‘Environmental considerations’ section of the FMP Annexes document published for the public consultation in 2023.

The initial draft crab and lobster FMP was prepared by Seafish for Defra, in collaboration with the CMG. The CMG brings together industry stakeholders from across the crab and lobster supply chains, scientific researchers, and government and fishery regulators to work collaboratively to address issues facing UK crab and lobster fisheries. The CMG oversaw the development of the draft FMP and established a dedicated FMP working group to work on the crab and lobster specific management objectives and the future management requirements for crab and lobster fisheries.

As part of the FMP preparation process, Seafish delivered a series of informal stakeholder engagement events during late 2022, on behalf of Defra. A full summary of these events – including format of sessions and key themes emerging was set out in the Stakeholder engagement section of the FMP Annexes document published for the public consultation in 2023. Feedback from these events was used by Seafish and the CMG to refine the content and to develop the proposed management interventions in the draft plan published for the public consultation in 2023.

Defra undertook a public consultation on the draft FMP in July 2023 in accordance with the requirement set out in Schedule 1 Part 3 of the Act. Defra prepared this first published version 1 of the FMP having had regard for the representations received during that consultation.

Scope of the crab and lobster FMP

Species

The crab and lobster FMP relates to all brown crab (Cancer pagurus) and European lobster (Homarus gammarus) fishing activity in English waters, including activity from other UK, EU, and other coastal state vessels. Any measures adopted in accordance with this plan must be consistent with the requirements of the UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA), including Article 496^{[footnote 4]} and any relevant decisions made via the Specialised Committee for Fisheries (SCF), such as the adoption of any multi-year strategies (MYSts) for shared non-quota stocks.

Additionally, there are several data-limited species also included in this FMP for which there is currently no formal stock assessment applied. These are:

• crawfish (Palinurus elephas)
• velvet swimming crab (Necora puber)
• common spider crab (Maja brachydactyla)
• common prawn (Palaemon serratus)

Fleet characteristics

Inshore crab and lobster fisheries are located across the UK. Most vessels fishing for crab and lobster (over 80% in 2021) are 10 metres or under in length and tend to operate as day boats in inshore waters. There is also a larger offshore fishery located in east, northeast and southwest England, targeted by larger potting vessels capable of fishing multi-day trips (also referred to as vivier vessels).

Ports in east and northeast England are especially reliant on crab and lobster fisheries, with a high proportion of the total value of landings occurring in this area. Ports in the southwest, particularly larger ports, receive more mixed seafood landings, and a lower proportion of total landings (in terms of value) are made up of crab and lobster. In the northeast of England, landings are primarily from pots, while in the southwest there is a higher (but still small) proportion of landings made using nets. The most productive area for crab and lobster fishing in English waters is to the east of England, adjacent to the Humber estuary.

Fishery and fishing methods

Most of the species included in the crab and lobster FMP are caught in targeted pot and trap fisheries predominantly by the 10 metres or under vessel fleet. Crawfish and spider crab are also caught in both mixed and targeted tangle net fisheries. All species may also be landed as a bycatch of trawl fisheries. Crab and lobster pot fisheries can be highly selective in utilising variations in pot size and shape, mesh size, and the design of entries and escape panels.

Two main shapes of trap are used to target brown crabs: the inkwell-shaped trap (Figure 1), favoured by larger vessels, and a standard D-shaped trap with entrances on either side or on top (Figure 2). D-shaped traps (also called creels) with parlour sections (separate sections designed to retain catch) are also popular with larger vessels, particularly on the east coast of England. However, different traps are favoured by individual fishers across different areas of the UK.

The D-shaped trap with 2 entrances (Figure 2) is favoured by lobster fishers. However, lobsters may also be caught as bycatch in the inkwell-style pots (Figure 1) used in crab fisheries. Crab, lobster and crawfish are generally targeted, with velvet and spider crabs caught and landed in a mixture of targeted and non-targeted fisheries.  

Figure 1: Ink-well trap (Seafish, 2023)

Figure 1 description: an inkwell-shaped trap with an open top entrance typically used to catch brown crab.

Figure 2: D-shaped creel (Seafish, 2023)

Figure 2 description: a D-shaped trap with an entrance on each side used to catch crab and lobsters.

Figure 3: Creels on the seabed (Seafish, 2023)

Figure 3 description: a fleet of creels deployed on the seabed.

The main landing sites for crab in England are located on the east, northeast and southwest coasts. English ports of particular significance are Grimsby, Bridlington, Newlyn, Salcombe and Scarborough. Collectively these 5 ports accounted for 61% of all brown crab landings from English waters in 2021.

The main landing ports in England for lobster are Bridlington, Scarborough, Whitby, Newlyn and Hornsea. Collectively these accounted for 50% of lobster landings from English waters in 2021. More information on crab and lobster landings by port and fleet metier was set out in the ‘Evidence statement’ section of the FMP Annexes document published for the public consultation in 2023.

Data-limited shellfish species

Roughly 40% of crawfish landings are made using pots and traps, with the remaining landings predominantly caught using tangle nets. Landings by vessels over and under 10 metres in length are relatively similar.

The main ports where crawfish are landed are in Cornwall, notably Newlyn where 22 tonnes of crawfish were landed in 2021, representing 59% of total landings in England. The second highest volume of crawfish landings in 2021 were made in the Isles of Scilly, with 5.7 tonnes, representing 15% of total landings.

Spider crab is both a target fishery (in tangle nets) and a bycatch from mobile and static gear vessels. All significant fishing activity takes place in the southwest of England, where the main landing sites are Cadgwith, Hayle, Helford River, Salcombe, Newlyn and Newquay. The fishery is seasonal, largely occurring between April and August. In 2020 Salcombe was the primary landing site with 44.8 tonnes (20% of total spider crab landings from English waters).

Velvet crabs are caught in the inshore creel fishery alongside crab and lobster – they are seldom targeted in English waters, although there are more significant velvet crab fisheries in Scotland and Northern Ireland. The main landing sites in England for velvet swimming crabs in 2021 were Holy Island (31.9 tonnes) and Amble (13.2 tonnes), representing 48% and 20% of total landings respectively. Other important ports for velvet crabs, even though volumes are small, are Bridlington, Seahouses, and Mylor.

Common prawn is generally a seasonal fishery targeted largely by vessels under 10 metres in length. They are fished most intensely from November to February using pots baited largely with herring. The largest landing sites are Exmouth and along the River Dart, with significant landings also at Paignton and Lyme Regis.

Current status of the English crab and lobster fisheries

Landings profile

The landings profile for crab and lobster can be summarised as follows.

Crab

Overall landings for brown crab from English waters were stable between 2016 and 2019, ranging between 13,641 tonnes and 14,877 tonnes. However, in 2020 landings dropped by 19% to 11,575 tonnes, probably impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Landings remained similarly low in 2021, totalling 11,683 tonnes. In 2021 the highest tonnages were landed from International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) rectangles off the northeast coast of England – specifically 36F0 off the coast of Bridlington, which accounted for 26% (3,022 tonnes) of total landings. Other significant ICES rectangles in terms of crab landings are located off the southwest coast of England, specifically 29E4 and 29E6, which saw landings of 952 and 891 tonnes respectively in 2021.

Lobster

Overall landings for lobster from English waters were steady between 2016 and 2021. Within this period, lobster landings ranged between around 1,500 tonnes and 2,000 tonnes, with a peak of 1,919 tonnes in 2017 and a low of 1,492 tonnes in 2020 (again, probably impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic). Moderate annual fluctuations were observed, whereby lower landings were recorded following a year of higher landings, and vice versa. Some fluctuations may be explained by extreme cold weather events, such as in 2018, which resulted in mass mortalities in the North Sea. In 2021 recorded landings were 1,772 tonnes. The highest tonnages were landed from ICES rectangles off the northeast coast of England – specifically 36F0 off the coast of Bridlington, where 30% (523 tonnes) of landings originated in 2021.

Stock status

Both crab and lobster fisheries benefit from a reasonable understanding of the biological parameters of each species and, at a broad level, current exploitation rates.

However, differing levels of evidence are available across the different crab stocks. Sufficient evidence is available to carry out a stock assessment for the Central North Sea and Southern North Sea stocks and to determine a proxy for maximum sustainable yield (MSY) using length cohort analysis. Sufficient evidence is available to carry out a stock assessment for female crabs in the Western Channel and Celtic Sea stocks, to determine a proxy for MSY (length cohort analysis), but there is insufficient evidence to assess the MSY proxy for male crabs in these stocks. There is insufficient evidence to carry out a stock assessment for the Eastern English Channel stock.

Likewise, levels of evidence vary across lobster stocks. Sufficient evidence is available to carry out stock assessments for 5 out of 6 lobster fishery units (Northumberland and Durham, Yorkshire Humber, East Anglia, Southeast South coast, and Southwest) and to determine a proxy for MSY (length cohort analysis). There is insufficient data available to carry out a stock assessment for the Northwest lobster fishery unit. Data have not been collected in this area due to low fishing effort and landings.

Challenges remain in providing reliable assessments of stock status. While there are management measures in place, primarily relating to managing species by size and protecting females, these are fragmented and lack a sufficient  regional approach to deliver effective management at a fishery level.

In contrast there is limited available data on the data-limited shellfish species and, outside selected IFCAs, there are few management measures.

Both crab and lobster fisheries have a time series of scientific biological data around stock status and there has been some success in establishing biological reference points for MSY. The following reference points – a proposed target reference point and an initial limit reference point – apply to crab and lobster.

The proposed target reference point is defined as the exploitation rate that would produce 35% of virgin Spawner per Recruit (SpR), which is a proxy for the fishing rate that will tend to produce MSY. Crab and lobster fisheries should be managed such that the stock biomass fluctuates around this point.

An initial limit reference point has been suggested by the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) at 15% of virgin SpR. Fisheries operating beyond this level are less likely to be sustainable. Having fisheries operating below this threshold increases the risk of impaired reproduction, compromises long-term stock sustainability, and reduces yield to the fishery. In some management jurisdictions, if a stock moves below the biomass-based limit reference point the stock is assessed as to be at risk of collapse and the fishery is closed, or at least severely restricted, and a rebuilding plan implemented.

There is an agreed stock assessment methodology in use for brown crab and European lobster fisheries but there are specific uncertainties that limit the level of certainty of the assessment results. At the time of publication, Cefas does not currently present precise estimates of fishing mortality or stock size.

These uncertainties include the following issues.

1. A lack of understanding of growth and natural mortality rates.
2. A lack of appropriate fishing effort data. Pot hauls or total pot numbers are not recorded at the stock level, meaning that fishing effort must be estimated from sales notes (supplemented by monthly shellfish activity return (MSAR) forms). Estimates of fishing effort are given as number of days at sea, which is considered an imperfect metric for static gear fisheries, as it gives no indication of total fishing effort exerted on the stock. This is because gear can continue fishing while the vessel is not at sea, and effort in terms of pots and hours fished can vary within a day.
3. Representativeness of landings used to collect length samples. Scientific officers visit individual ports to measure individuals from catches for length cohort analysis and to determine ratios of landings by sex. The assumption is that these catches are representative of population structure. However, this makes no allowance for behavioural differences or catchability of different size and different sex crabs or lobsters in pot fisheries. If catches are not representative of the wider population, then stock size assessments based on these samples will be inherently biased.
4. There is some uncertainty around the base assumptions (such as constant spatial coverage of population, equal availability of different animal size ranges), which can lead to inaccuracies in the assessment results.
5. Exemptions from reporting requirements for recreational fisheries means that estimates of fishing mortality used in assessments are likely to be lower than actual fishing mortality levels, as not all removals can be accounted for.

Despite this, models are considered reliable enough to give indicative figures for stock size against reference points and indicate whether exploitation rates are low, medium or high. Future models will utilise emerging technologies, such as further consideration of remote electronic monitoring (REM) for the purpose of assessment.

Overall stock health is determined based on an assessment of exploitation rates – level of fishing pressure on the stock – and the assessment of stock status (spawning stock biomass) across each crab and lobster fishery unit (CFU and LFU, respectively). CFUs and LFUs are stock units defined based on understandings of larval distribution, hydrographic conditions, and distributions. CFUs and LFUs are assessed by Cefas as part of their stock assessment programme. See Table 1 below and the maps of CFUs and LFUs (figure 4 and 5).

Exploitation rates

Based on the 2019 stock status reports, current exploitation rates have been assessed as follows.

Crab

Exploitation rates for crab remained relatively constant between 2017 and 2019. In 2019 exploitation was high (above the limit reference point) in the Southern North Sea CFU, and moderate (at the limit for males) in the Central North Sea. Exploitation rate was moderate (between target and limit reference points) in the Western English Channel and Celtic Sea. There is no status available for the Eastern English Channel, and in the Western English Channel stock status is only available for females.

Lobster

Exploitation rates were above target MSY reference points in all 5 LFUs assessed in 2019. In Northumberland and Durham, Yorkshire Humber and East Anglia LFUs, exploitation was high (above the limit reference point) for at least females. In the Channel (Southwest and Southeast South Coast LFUs), exploitation was moderate  (between the target and limit reference points). There have been some minor improvements recorded since the 2017 assessment. Exploitation levels were very high in Northumberland and Durham and Yorkshire Humber in 2017, and these are now assessed as high. Similarly, the exploitation rate in the Southeast South Coast decreased from high to moderate. This suggests that exploitation rates in some LFUs decreased between the two most recent stock assessments. However, in 2019 stocks were still exploited above the fishing rate likely to deliver MSY.

Effort data

Available effort data for crab and lobster fisheries is based on EU logbooks and MSAR forms, which record days fished rather than numbers of pots fished. This means available effort information lacks sufficient detail to accurately assess the impact fishing effort is having on stocks.

Anecdotal information from some fisheries suggests that there have been significant increases in both pot numbers and spatial distribution of fishing effort in recent years, but the lack of fine-scale effort data mean these increases in effort are not necessarily reflected in the landing data. Because fishing effort is estimated using days at sea, large increases in landings can be misinterpreted by current modelling approaches as increases in spawning stock, because there is no consideration of total numbers of pots fished at a given time at sea (for more detail, see the Cefas Crab and Lobster stock assessments 2019).

Assessment of stock status

Based on the 2019 assessment results the stock status of crab and lobster stocks have been assessed as follows.

Crab

Crab stock status (in terms of spawning stock biomass) in 3 of the 4 CFUs assessed in 2019 was found to be below the MSY target reference point (Central North Sea, Southern North Sea, and Celtic Sea). None of these stocks were below the limit reference point for spawning stock biomass, and stock status in the Western Channel CFU was near MSY for females. Both stock status and exploitation rates were unknown in the Eastern English Channel in the 2017 and 2019 assessments.

Lobster

Stock status (in terms of spawning stock biomass) in all 5 LFUs assessed in 2019 was found to be below the MSY target reference point, and 4 out of the 5 were below or at the minimum (limit) reference point (all except the Southwest, which is between the target and limit reference points).

Summary

No CFUs or LFUs have a stock status above MSY. There has also been little change in CFU and LFU stock size between the 2017 and 2019 assessments.

Although CFUs are assessed separately, there is recognised connectivity between units because of migration and larval dispersal, although this is not fully understood. There is evidence of a westward migration of adult crabs in the English Channel and a southward drift of larval crabs along the east coast of England in the southern North Sea. This means that stock health in one CFU can have implications for stock status in another.

In summary, the current stock status information indicates that fishing pressure is likely too high across all crab and lobster fisheries based on the best available evidence. Most fishery units are at or below the MSY target, and some are at, or only slightly above, the minimum reference point – which is the point at which long-term sustainability of the fishery could be compromised.

The inherent uncertainties in the assessment process also suggest that these estimates may underestimate the extent of fishing pressure such that stock status could be worse than expected. This conclusion shows a clear need for robust management intervention and a formalised rebuilding plan to bring exploitation rates down to sustainable levels and to allow stocks to recover towards the MSY target.

Table 1: Stock size (spawning stock biomass) and exploitation rates (fishing mortality) for English crab and lobster fishery units in 2019 and 2017

 The information in this table is based on the following stock assessment reports from Cefas:

• Crab and Lobster stock assessment 2017
• Crab and Lobster stock assessments 2019

Fishery unit	Stock size 2017	Stock size 2019	Exploitation rate 2017	Exploitation rate 2019
Central North Sea CFU	Below MSY. Around minimum reference point limit for males, approaching target for females.	Below MSY. Approaching target for males and above the target for females.	Moderate. Below maximum reference point limit for females, males close to limit.	Moderate. Below maximum reference point limit for females, males are at the limit.
Southern North Sea CFU	Below MSY. Around minimum reference point limit for males, approaching target for females.	Below MSY. Between minimum reference point limit and target for males and females.	High. Around the maximum reference point limit for males and females.	High. Above the maximum reference point limit for males and females.
Eastern English Channel CFU	Unknown.	Unknown.	Unknown.	Unknown.
Western English Channel CFU	Near MSY. High, around the level required to achieve MSY for both males and females.	Near MSY. High, around the target level required to achieve MSY for females.	Moderate. At a level required to achieve MSY for both males and females.	Moderate. Around target level required to achieve MSY for females.
Celtic Sea CFU	Below MSY. Below MSY level but above minimum reference point limit for females. Unknown for males.	Below MSY. Below MSY level but above minimum reference point limit for females. Unknown for males.	Moderate. Around level required to achieve MSY for females. Unknown for males.	Moderate. Close to target level generating MSY for females. Unknown for males.
Northumberland and Durham LFU	Below minimum reference. Below minimum reference point limit, but stable for males and females.	Below minimum reference. Below the minimum reference point limit for females, just above for males.	Very high. Beyond maximum reference point limit for both males and females.	High. Around maximum reference point limit for males, above for females.
Yorkshire Humber LFU	Near minimum reference. Around minimum reference point for males and females.	Near minimum reference. Near minimum reference point for males and females.	Very high. Beyond maximum reference point limit for males and females.	High. Above the maximum reference point limit for both males and females.
East Anglia LFU	Unknown. Catch rates are fairly stable.	Below minimum reference. Low, below minimum reference point for males and females.	Unknown.	High. Above minimum reference point for males and females.
Southeast South Coast LFU	Near minimum reference. Around the minimum reference point limit for males and females.	Near minimum reference. Around the minimum reference point limit for males, between limit and target for females.	High. Above rates consistent with MSY but below maximum reference point limit for males and females.	Moderate. Above rates consistent with MSY, but below maximum reference point limit for males and females.
Southwest LFU	Below MSY. Above minimum reference point limit, but below MSY target for males and females.	Below MSY. Above minimum reference point limit, but below MSY target for males and females.	Moderate. Above rates consistent with MSY, but below maximum reference point limit. Stable or decreasing over the past 3 years for males and females.	Moderate. Above rates consistent with MSY, but below maximum reference point limit for males and females.

Figure 4: Crab fishery units in England as assessed by Cefas (Cefas, FMP evidence, 2022)

Figure 4 description: a map showing the recorded distribution of brown crab around the British Isles, with crab fishery units overlaid. The crab fishery units include the Irish Sea, Celtic Sea, Western English Channel, Eastern English Channel, Southern North Sea and Central North Sea.

Figure 5: Lobster fishery units in England as assessed by Cefas (Cefas, FMP evidence, 2022)

Figure 5 description: a map showing the recorded distribution of lobster around the British Isles, with lobster fishery units overlaid. The lobster fishery units include the Northwest, the Irish Sea, Southwest, Southeast and South Coast, East Anglia, Yorkshire Humber, and Northumberland and Durham.

Data-limited species

Crawfish, spider crab, common prawn, and velvet swimming crab have received little focus in terms of data gathering and management and therefore are data-limited species. Information on the volume and value of landings of these species is presented in Evidence section (see section 5) of the FMP Annexes document published for the public consultation in 2023.

It is timely that these species are included in the scope of this FMP, as growing markets for crawfish and spider crabs means these fisheries could be subject to increased fishing pressure.

The following section provides a summary of trends for landings of these secondary shellfish species.

Landings summary

Crawfish landings remained stable at around 12.5 tonnes between 2016 and 2019. However, between 2019 and 2022 there was a 282% increase in crawfish landings. This is thought to have been driven in part by the COVID-19 pandemic and closure of export markets, which resulted in more fishers targeting shellfish during this period. In 2022 the total value of annual crawfish landings exceeded £1 million for the first time, reaching £1.3 million, a 248% increase on 2019 figures.

Velvet swimming crabs are the most significant data-limited species in terms of both volume and value of landings. In 2019 over 2,000 tonnes of velvet swimming crabs were landed for a total value of £5 million.

Spider crab landings have been steadily increasing, from 344 tonnes in 2016 to 643 tonnes in 2019. In recent years there has been a decrease in volume of landings to 425 tonnes in 2020.

Common prawn landings have fluctuated over recent years. Landings peaked at 6.7 tonnes (worth around £140,000) in 2021, before declining to 4.3 tonnes in 2022 (around £80,000). Price per landed weight has increased during this time.

Shared shellfish principles

The nine overarching shared shellfish principles developed by the SIAG are set out below. These principles have been designed to address key management, social and economic issues that face all shellfish fisheries in English waters.

The SIAG brings together government, regulators, researchers and industry stakeholders to discuss national-level strategic management of shellfish fisheries. Many issues facing the sector are not specific to individual shellfish species. These principles recognise common challenges and issues and have been reflected in each of the shellfish FMPs.

While these principles are non-statutory, and the associated actions go beyond the legal obligations for FMPs in section 6 of the Act, Defra welcomes these industry commitments to complement and support the delivery of the FMPs and objectives in the Act.

The SIAG will maintain responsibility for the principles and the actions set out to deliver them.

The shared principles are:  

1. Formalise the structure and operation of the SIAG and associated sub-groups, and ensure effective representation, so that it becomes a focal point of engagement on shellfish fisheries management in England.
2. Assess fishing effort (including latent capacity) on stock sustainability and, if necessary, recommend appropriate measures to manage effort.
3. Establish a mechanism that enables regulators to effectively engage with, and draw on, shellfish industry knowledge in relation to discussions on NQS management through the TCA.
4. Enable better involvement of the shellfish industry in matters regarding marine spatial planning and changes in marine spatial use by facilitating better collaboration between regulators, planners and industry stakeholders.
5. Improve understanding of the impacts of non-fishing activities (for example capital dredging, undersea cables) on English shellfish stocks.
6. Progress initiatives to increase and promote consumption of sustainable UK shellfish.
7. Facilitate and promote trade opportunities for shellfish in overseas markets (EU and non-EU).
8. Develop advice and guidance on shellfish welfare issues to help the industry to further develop and implement best practice handling measures.
9. Industry to take collective responsibility for complying with welfare and good working conditions legislation, and guidance to ensure the highest possible standards across the shellfish sector supply chain.

Further detail on these objectives is set out in the FMP Annexes document published for the public consultation in 2023 (see ‘Shellfish shared principles’).

Crab and lobster fishery management objectives

The crab and lobster-specific objectives are management objectives for crab and lobster fisheries in English waters. These are outlined in more detail in the following sections.

For each objective, we have set out the rationale, the activities that will help to deliver it, and how it links to objectives in the Act. Some crab and lobster FMP objectives go beyond the Act but are included here for completeness.

These species-specific objectives are designed to address key fisheries management issues facing specific fisheries in English waters. Species-specific objectives for English brown crab and lobster fisheries were collaboratively developed by the CMG FMP working group and reflect feedback received during the stakeholder engagement events. The species-specific objectives were also reviewed by the CMG science sub-group. A draft evidence and research plan was published for the public consultation in 2023 to show how the evidence requirements to support delivery of these objectives would be met. Defra will continue to revise and maintain the evidence and research plan through the lifetime of the FMP.

These objectives also reflect industry priorities and the desire to deliver environmentally sustainable shellfish fisheries which continue to deliver socio-economic benefits to communities and the wider supply chain.

Brown crab fisheries management objectives

These objectives relate specifically to the management of crab fisheries in English waters. While most objectives identified are necessary to meet the requirements of section 6 of the Act, some objectives and the actions suggested to deliver them go beyond these requirements but are included for completeness. Responsibility for delivery of these objectives, once actions are agreed, will sit across industry groups and fisheries authorities. Delivery of the objectives will need to be prioritised to support the FMP’s phased approach towards meeting the Act’s objectives.

1. Develop and pilot an improved data collection programme for crab fisheries, which supports a data rich future and results in the establishment of a reliable time series that facilitates robust, sustainable management

Rationale

Scientific evidence provisioning is fundamental for facilitating the development and enforcement of an appropriate, evidence-based fisheries management regime.

Potential actions

Evaluate current data gathering protocols to identify means of improving data provision, consistency, compatibility between data assets, and identifying critical data and knowledge gaps.

Improve the current data collection programme at a national level, to address critical data requirements and build a long-term time series of data to support evidence-based fisheries management. The data collection programme should consider both fishery-dependent and independent data and make best use of fisher knowledge and expertise.

Create an ongoing time series and develop a process for reviewing stock status at the end of the first 5 years of the plan.

Build partnerships between stakeholders and UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) institutes to ensure that:

• research is targeted at answering management questions
• research is peer reviewed
• industry is consulted
• data is made available to support evidence-based fishery management-The scientific evidence objective.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The scientific evidence objective.

2. Establish methods to better assess stock status that reflect the life history of the target species and fishery exploitation patterns

Rationale

Accurate information regarding stock status is essential for informing management decisions and protecting against over-exploitation.

Potential actions

Critique current stock assessment approach and explore alternative assessment options.

Determine appropriateness of current stock boundaries and alignment between management and stock areas, accounting for migration patterns, where relevant.

Undertake research to begin addressing uncertainties in current modelling approaches, including:

• growth and natural mortality
• representativeness of landings data
• non-fishing impacts on crustacean stocks
• methods of gathering useful fishing effort data from static gear fisheries

Establish a suitable assessment and management cycle for crab whereby stock assessments inform timely and effective fishery management approaches to respond to changes in stock status.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The scientific evidence objective.

3. Assess the impact of crab fishing activity on the wider marine environment

Rationale

It is essential to understand how crab potting activity impacts the marine environment and to identify and minimise any negative interactions.

This will help protect marine ecosystem structure and functioning, achievement of good environmental status (GES), and improve industry reputation.

Potential actions

Undertake desk-based review of wider environmental impacts of crab fisheries on benthic habitats and endangered, threatened and protected (ETP) species, considering factors such as regional variations in fishing methods, gear types, and species present.

Assess the efficacy of existing avoidance and mitigation measures relating to impacts of crab fisheries on benthic habitats. If necessary, make recommendations on changes (considering both regulatory and voluntary measures) that the sector could make to improve its environmental credentials.

Assess the efficacy of existing bycatch avoidance and mitigation measures, and of reporting requirements relating to impacts of crab fisheries on ETP species. If necessary, make recommendations on changes (considering both regulatory and voluntary measures) that the sector could make to improve its environmental credentials.

Explore the frequency, scale, drivers and likely impacts of fishing gear losses in the static gear sector. Consider the introduction of biodegradable materials to mitigate the impacts of lost gear.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The ecosystem objective.

4. Improve understanding of interactions between the crab fishery and other fisheries

Rationale

Understanding interactions with other fisheries is key to developing a management regime that accounts for the operations of other fisheries, and appropriately addresses any issues or conflicts identified.

Potential actions

Review interactions between crab fisheries and other fisheries to improve understanding of:

• direct impacts (for example, incidental capture of non-target species in the crab fishery)
• indirect impacts (for example, bait sourcing for crab fisheries and provisioning bait for whelk fisheries)

Review issues surrounding interactions between fisheries operating in shared marine space – both between different métiers of static gear fisheries and between static and mobile gear fisheries. Also explore ways of minimising the social, economic and environmental impacts of conflicts between fishers at present and in the future.

Review the impact of other fisheries on crab stocks, for example, bycatch and mortality of crabs in other fisheries.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objectives

The sustainability objectives and the scientific evidence objective.

5. Devise and implement a short- to medium-term management approach proposal that considers the external regulatory environment

Rationale

Under a changing landscape post-EU exit, it will be important to implement interim management measures based on best available scientific evidence in order to protect crab stocks against over-exploitation, while an increased time series of data required for responsive, evidence-based management is assembled (as per objectives 1 and 2).

Potential actions

Explore options around managing fishing effort to protect stocks in the absence of a full time series of effort data. Ensure that management remains flexible and responsive to changes in stock status or availability of scientific information as the evidence base improves.

Develop an interim management approach that considers the wider post-EU exit landscape and:

• enables managers and industry to respond to changes in stock status in the absence of comprehensive stock status information
• ensures the management approach for English crab fisheries is aligned with the requirements set out under the TCA
• informs and respond to changes to the Western Waters effort regime

Review the way in which different métiers are grouped for management purposes, in consideration of differences in fishing capacity between vessels of different constructions.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objectives

The sustainability objective and the scientific evidence objective.

6. Establish a long-term management approach for crab fisheries in line with improvements in data collection and stock assessment

Rationale

A harvest strategy with appropriate harvest control rules (HCRs), which are based on an increased time series of data (as per objectives 1 and 2) will facilitate agile fisheries management that is responsive to changes in fishing activity and stock status, thus protecting against unsustainable exploitation.

HCRs are the operational component of a harvest strategy and set a pre-agreed response to changes in the fishery – for example, a pre-determined reduction in fishing effort triggered by changes to an indicator of stock status.

Potential actions

Collaboratively develop a harvest strategy with appropriate HCRs for English crab fisheries, with input from industry, researchers and regulators. This work should consider the following principles.

1. HCRs should ensure that:

   • exploitation is aligned with actual or likely stock status according to the best available scientific evidence
   • management measures are adjusted in response to changes in the assessed state of the stock
2. Development of HCRs should include evaluation of available management tools in the crab fishery context to determine the most appropriate management tools to limit fishing mortality.
3. Development of a harvest strategy and HCRs is based on provision of better data on English crab fisheries, as outlined in objectives 1 and 2.

Consider fishery management measures that are designed to rebuild stocks, rather than preserve them, in line with the best available scientific evidence.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objectives

The scientific evidence objective and the precautionary objective.

7. Explore trade-offs between access arrangements for crab fisheries that will ensure both long-term environmental sustainability and economic profitability

Rationale

Appropriate access arrangements will support thriving crab fisheries in terms of both economic and environmental sustainability.

Potential actions

Explore options for:

• fair and equitable access to the resource, and equitable fishing opportunities
• community access arrangements
• consideration of cultural heritage
• addressing issues around capacity (including latent capacity)
• newcomers to the fishery

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The equal access objective.

8. Monitor other key commercial crustacean species

Rationale

Monitoring of other key commercial crustacean fisheries will facilitate timely management interventions to prevent unsustainable fishing practices (if required).

These species are not currently captured under any other English FMP. However, they make up a significant proportion of fishers’ catches in some parts of the country. Incorporating these species in the FMP will ensure that patterns of fishing activity, and any biological indicators of stock sustainability, are monitored and potential issues can be identified and addressed.

Potential actions

Within the broader crab and lobster FMP, acknowledge and address issues specific to the following fisheries:

• crawfish (Palinurus elephas)
• common prawn (Palaemon serratus)
• spider crab (Maja brachydactyla)
• velvet crab (Necora puber)
• emerging crustacean fisheries

Undertake annual monitoring of patterns of fishing activity, fleet performance, management, and indicators of stock status.

Consider these species in other objectives.

Consider species-specific management requirements, for example, harmonisation of the crawfish minimum conservation reference size (MCRS) nationally.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objectives

The sustainability, scientific evidence, and precautionary objectives.

9. Government and shellfish industry to work together to take collective responsibility to:

• mitigate or reduce emissions from the shellfish supply chain
• adapt to and reduce the environmental impacts of climate change

Rationale

Improved understanding of the carbon footprint of shellfish fisheries in scope of the FMP will help identify carbon hotspots and identify opportunities for decarbonization or mitigation.

Reducing emissions from the shellfish supply chain will help the industry contribute to national and global goals for combatting climate change and meeting net zero commitments.

Improved understanding of likely impacts of climate change on English shellfish fisheries will help the commercial fishing sector adapt to changes, building greater business resilience.

Potential actions

1. Work collectively to:

   • assess the carbon footprint of English shellfish fisheries using a reliable metric that takes into account specifics of the shellfish industry (for example, different fleet métiers, and carbon sequestration in shell material)
   • identify opportunities for reducing or mitigating carbon emissions in the shellfish sector and encourage improvements
   • support seafood businesses to explore alternative uses for shellfish co- products and by-products (for example, shell waste), to minimise emissions in the shellfish supply chain.
   • monitor climate change-related issues of relevance to the shellfish sector and use the SIAG as a forum through which to raise awareness, stimulate collaborative working, and support communication of positive environmental credentials

2. Review relevant research to outline likely impacts of changing climatic conditions on English shellfish fisheries, in order to:

   • assess the likely impact on population dynamics of target species
   • assess economic viability of commercial fisheries, and likely impacts on coastal communities and wider society (for example, loss of employment)
   • communicate options for English shellfish fisheries to adapt to and operate under changing climatic conditions.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The climate change objective.

European lobster fisheries management objectives

Fisheries management objectives for European lobster (Homarus gammarus) align closely with objectives for brown crab, due to the similar nature of these pot fisheries. Lobster objectives are presented separately from crab objectives to account for differences in management requirements and the evidence base, and to enable progress against FMP objectives to be independently tracked for each species.

As set out above, these objectives relate specifically to the management of lobster fisheries in English waters. While most objectives identified are necessary to meet the requirements of section 6 of the Act, some objectives and the actions suggested to deliver them go beyond these requirements but are included for completeness. Responsibility for delivery of these objectives, once actions are agreed, will sit across industry groups, fisheries authorities and government. Delivery of the objectives will need to be prioritised to support the phased approach of the FMP towards meeting the Act’s objectives.

1. Develop and pilot an improved data collection programme for lobster fisheries, which supports a data-rich future and establishes a reliable time series that facilitates robust, sustainable management

Rationale

Scientific evidence provisioning is fundamental for facilitating the development and enforcement of an appropriate, evidence-based fisheries management regime.

Potential actions

Evaluate current data gathering protocols to identify means of improving data provision, consistency, and compatibility between data assets, and identifying critical data and knowledge gaps.

Improve the current data collection programme at a national level, to address critical data requirements and build a long-term time series of data to support evidence-based fisheries management. The data collection programme should consider both fishery-dependent and independent data and make best use of fisher knowledge and expertise.

Develop a mechanism of gathering accurate fishing effort data from lobster fisheries, as a means of monitoring fleet performance and likely stock status (for example, by increasing usage of the government’s Record your catch app). 

Build partnerships between stakeholders and UKRI institutes to ensure that:

• research is targeted at answering management questions
• research is peer reviewed, and industry is consulted
• data is made available to support evidence-based fishery management

Create an ongoing time series and develop a process by which stock status may be reviewed at the end of the first 5 years of the plan.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The scientific evidence objective.

2. Establish methods to better assess stock status, which reflect the life history of the target species and fishery exploitation patterns

Rationale

Accurate information regarding stock status is essential for informing management decisions and protecting against over-exploitation.

Potential actions

Assess the current stock assessment approach and explore alternative assessment options.

Determine appropriateness of current stock boundaries and alignment between management and stock areas.

Undertake research to begin addressing uncertainties in current modelling approaches, including growth and natural mortality, representativeness of landings data, non-fishing impacts on lobster stocks, and methods of gathering useful fishing effort data from static gear fisheries.

Establish a suitable assessment and management cycle for lobster, whereby stock assessments support timely and effective fishery management approaches that respond to changes in stock status.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The scientific evidence objective.

3. Assess the impact of lobster fishing activity on the wider marine environment

Rationale

It is essential to understand how lobster potting activity impacts the marine environment in order to identify and minimise any negative interactions.

This will help to protect marine ecosystem structure and functioning, achievement of GES, and improve industry reputation.

Potential actions

Undertake desk-based review of the wider environmental impacts of lobster fisheries on benthic habitats and ETP species, considering factors such as regional variations in fishing methods, gear types and species present.

Assess the efficacy of existing avoidance and mitigation measures relating to impacts of lobster fisheries on benthic habitats. If necessary, make recommendations on changes (considering both regulatory and voluntary measures) that the sector could make to improve its environmental credentials.

Assess the efficacy of existing bycatch avoidance and mitigation measures and reporting requirements relating to impacts of lobster fisheries on ETP species. If necessary, make recommendations on changes (considering both regulatory and voluntary measures) that the sector could make to improve its environmental credentials.

Explore the frequency, scale, drivers and likely impacts of fishing gear losses in the static gear sector. Consider the introduction of biodegradable materials to mitigate the impacts of lost gear.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The ecosystem objective.

4. Improve understanding of interactions between the English lobster fishery and other fisheries

Rationale

Understanding interactions with other fisheries is key to developing a management regime that accounts for the operations of other fisheries, and appropriately addresses any issues or conflicts identified.

Potential actions

Review interactions between lobster fisheries and other fisheries to improve understanding of:

• direct impacts (for example, incidental capture of non-target species in the lobster fishery)
• indirect impacts (for example, sourcing bait for lobster fisheries)

Review issues surrounding interactions between fisheries operating in shared marine space – both between different métiers of static gear fisheries, and between static and mobile gear fisheries. Also explore ways of minimising the social, economic and environmental impacts of conflicts between fishers at present and in the future.

Review the impact of other fisheries on lobster stocks, for example, bycatch and mortality of lobsters in other fisheries.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objectives

The bycatch objective and the ecosystem objective.

5. Devise and implement a short- to medium-term management approach proposal that considers the external regulatory environment

Rationale

Under a changing landscape post-EU exit, it will be important to implement interim management measures based on best-available scientific evidence in order to protect lobster stocks against over-exploitation, while an increased time series of data required for responsive, evidence-based management is assembled (as per objectives 1 and 2).

Potential actions

Explore options around managing fishing effort to protect stocks in the absence of a full time series of effort data. Ensure that management remains flexible and responsive to changes in stock status or availability of scientific information as the evidence base improves.

Develop an interim management approach which considers the wider post-EU exit landscape and:

• enables managers and industry to respond to changes in stock status in the absence of comprehensive stock status information
• ensures the management approach for English lobster fisheries is aligned with the requirements set out under the TCA

Determine how to protect stocks from overexploitation, in the absence of suitable evidence. Incorporate a flexible approach, so that responsive fishery management can be implemented in the absence of perfect information.

Provide a structure for the development of agile management regimes, which are responsive to changes in stock status or patterns of fishing activity.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The sustainability objective.

6. Establish a long-term management approach for lobster fisheries in line with improvements in data collection and stock assessment

Rationale

A harvest strategy with appropriate HCRs, which are based on an increased time series of data (as per objectives 1 and 2) will facilitate agile fisheries management that is responsive to changes in fishing activity and stock status, thus protecting against unsustainable exploitation.

HCRs are the operational component of a harvest strategy and set a pre-agreed response to changes in the fishery – for example, a pre-determined reduction in fishing effort triggered by changes to an indicator of stock status.

A harvest strategy and HCRs should balance stock health and socio-economic factors to ensure that stocks are protected and the fisheries remain economically viable. 

Potential actions

Co-develop a harvest strategy with appropriate HCRs for English lobster fisheries, with input from industry, researchers, and regulators. This work should consider the following principles.

1. HCRs should ensure that:

   • exploitation is aligned with actual or likely stock status, according to the best available scientific evidence
   • management measures are adjusted in response to changes
2. Development of HCRs should include exploration of appropriate management tools, including input controls (for example, pot limitations, seasonal closures, restrictive permitting schemes, or caps on effort) and output controls (for example, catch limits or size restrictions) to determine the most appropriate management tools to limit fishing mortality.
3. Development of a harvest strategy and HCRs is based on provision of better data on English lobster fisheries, as outlined in objectives 1 and 2.

Implement management measures that are designed to enhance stocks, rather than preserving them.

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objectives

The scientific evidence objective and the precautionary objective.

7. Explore trade-offs between access arrangements for lobster fisheries that will ensure both long-term environmental sustainability and economic profitability

Rationale

Appropriate access arrangements will support thriving lobster fisheries in terms of both economic and environmental sustainability.

Potential actions

Explore options for:

• fair and equitable access to the resource, and equitable fishing opportunities
• community access arrangements
• consideration of cultural heritage
• addressing issues around capacity (including latent capacity)
• newcomers to the fishery

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The equal access objective.

8. Government and shellfish industry to work together to take collective responsibility to:

• mitigate or reduce emissions from the shellfish supply chain
• adapt to and reduce the environmental impacts of climate change

Rationale

Improved understanding of the carbon footprint of shellfish fisheries in scope of the FMP will help identify carbon hotspots and identify opportunities for decarbonization or mitigation.

Reducing emissions from the shellfish supply chain will help the industry contribute to national and global goals for combatting climate change and meeting net-zero commitments.

Improved understanding of likely impacts of climate change on English shellfish fisheries will help the commercial fishing sector adapt to changes, building greater business resilience.

Potential actions

1. Work collectively to:

   • assess the carbon footprint of English shellfish fisheries using a reliable metric that takes into account specifics of the shellfish industry (for example, different fleet métiers and carbon sequestration in shell material)
   • identify opportunities for reducing or mitigating carbon emissions in the shellfish sector and encourage improvements
   • support seafood businesses to explore alternative uses for shellfish co- products and by-products (for example, shell waste), to minimise emissions in the shellfish supply chain
   • monitor climate change-related issues of relevance to the shellfish sector and use the SIAG as a forum through which to raise awareness, stimulate collaborative working, and support communication of positive environmental credentials

2. Review relevant research to outline likely impacts of changing climatic conditions on English shellfish fisheries, in order to:

   • assess the likely impact on population dynamics of target species
   • assess economic viability of commercial fisheries, and likely impacts on coastal communities and wider society (for example, loss of employment)
   • communicate options for English shellfish fisheries to adapt to and operate under changing climatic conditions

Relevant Fisheries Act 2020 objective

The climate change objective.

Future fisheries management strategy

The crab and lobster FMP sets a pathway for our vision of long-term sustainable management of these fisheries. The crab and lobster-specific objectives presented in this plan set out how this vision will be achieved.

This section details the proposed future management approach for crab, lobster and the data-limited shellfish species included in the FMP. For each species it covers the:

• current management landscape
• long-term management ambition
• proposed approach to deliver on that ambition by (a) improving the evidence and research base and (b) delivering more effective effort management

The current management landscape for crab and lobster in England is highly fragmented, with a range of national and regional (IFCA) management measures, including shellfish entitlements, MCRS (ranging from 115mm to 160mm for brown crab), pot limitations, permitting schemes, vessel length restrictions, and specific conservation regulations, such as de-clawing bans or mandatory escape gaps^{[footnote 5]}. Although a national shellfish entitlement limits entry to the fishery, an entitlement alone does not prevent expansion of effort by those already operating in the fishery.

Vessels of 15 metres and over in length targeting brown and spider crab in ICES areas 5, 6 and 7 are subject to annual effort limits through the Western Waters Effort Regime (WWER) (assimilated from EU legislation). Limits are set based on kilowatt days at sea per calendar year, and uptake is monitored by the MMO. In 2022 crab effort uptake through the WWER in area 7 was 310,904kW days at sea, which represented only 57% uptake, likely due to the area 7 effort limit now only applying in UK waters, rather than the whole of area 7, since the UK left the EU. This suggests that the limit is now higher than actual effort in the fishery and is therefore not limiting fishing pressure.

In October 2021 Defra hosted a workshop with representatives from the shellfish industry which focused on discussing the WWER and future management approaches (WWER workshop 2021). There were mixed views received from industry, with some suggesting that an effort regime based on ‘days at sea’ was not appropriate for static gear fisheries (as days at sea does not limit the number of pots fished or volume of crab landed). Others were keen for the WWER to be extended to all sectors. There was unanimous desire to move to a more evidence-based management approach in which management measures are linked to stock health.

The different management regimes are largely based on administrative boundaries, such as IFCA jurisdictions, and administrative boundaries between UK administrations or with the EU, and do not necessarily reflect biological boundaries between stocks. This means that fisheries exploiting the same biological stocks may be subject to different management restrictions depending on where fishing activity occurs.

This fragmented management approach adds to complexity for both fishers abiding by regulations and regulators enforcing the measures. This complexity makes it difficult to reconcile variations such as different MCRS to biological status of stocks and means it is more challenging to assess how effective a given measure is. It also contributes to the difficulties in accurately assessing the impact that fishing activity is having on stock sustainability.

As identified in section 3, the current evidence base strongly points to crab and lobster fisheries having high exploitation rates, stock sizes which mostly do not meet the MSY target reference point, and year-on-year increases in landings. These trends suggest that even with current management measures, fishing mortality is too high and should be reduced to ensure long-term sustainability of these fisheries. The available evidence demonstrates the need for robust management intervention and long-term planning to reduce exploitation rates to sustainable levels and allow stocks to recover towards MSY.

Crab and lobster

The overarching aim of this FMP is to deliver harvest strategies for crab and lobster fisheries in English waters which incorporate agreed harvest control rules (HCRs) and are supported by regular, reliable stock assessments. The aim of the harvest strategy should be to ensure that fishing mortality is managed at a level to deliver long-term sustainable stock health. HCRs will ensure that fishing effort remains at or below a pre-determined management target, and if stock status falls below this level, then clear and decisive management interventions are taken.

In line with Section 6 of the Act, this FMP presents an opportunity to bring English crab and lobster fisheries from a point of likely overexploitation to a regime of iterative and agile management, which is underpinned by the best available evidence and where management can quickly respond to changes in stock status.

The proposed approach to achieve this is threefold.

1. Address critical data and knowledge gaps through a consistent data collection and research programme.
2. Improve stock assessment methodologies for crab and lobster to ensure high quality, reliable information is available to underpin management decisions.
3. Implement effective management that limits fishing effort in line with stock status, while minimising regulatory burden on industry and providing for a viable and profitable shellfish sector.

Data-limited shellfish species

Although specific regional regulations exist in some IFCA jurisdictions, there are no national management approaches for crawfish, common prawn, spider crab and velvet swimming crab. Given the lack of information available on these species, the FMP sets a more fundamental objective of annual monitoring of fishing activity to help establish reliable time series of data. This should enable indices of abundance to be set and trends monitored. In time, this trend data could be used to identify whether further management action is required for these fisheries.

Future management approach

Recognising problems with the evidence base available to underpin good management, the future fishery management strategy needs to be adaptive. Hence, our approach will reflect the precautionary approach to fisheries management as set out in the precautionary objective of the Act, which is defined as “the absence of sufficient scientific information is not used to justify postponing or failing to take management measures to conserve target species, associated or dependent species, non-target species or their environment”.

As the baseline data improves, and as we increase our knowledge of these fisheries, management interventions will need to be flexible in response.

Figure 6 shows a simplified, conceptual cyclical process for fisheries management improvements, whereby management decisions are made based on the best available evidence at a given time. Management action is then taken, and the effects (negative and positive) of these actions are monitored through data collection, and adjustments are made if improvements are not evident or if new information becomes available to inform decision making. This approach is aligned with the scientific evidence and precautionary objectives of the Act as well as section 4.1.7 of the Joint Fisheries Statement (JFS).

Figure 6: Proposed iterative fisheries management cycle

Figure 6 description: the proposed iterative fisheries management cycle. Step 1 is collecting data, step 2 is reviewing evidence, step 3 is assessing stock status, step 4 is taking management action.

The proposed future management approach involves 4 key tasks:

• task 1: improving the availability of accurate, reliable, and fit for purpose data sets (FMP objectives 1 and 3)
• task 2: addressing issues in current assessment processes and making the best use of available information until the evidence base improves (FMP objective 2)
• task 3: taking initial management action based on existing information and adjusting management as impacts are observed and new information becomes available (FMP objectives 4 and 5)
• task 4: developing a harvest strategy with appropriate harvest control rules to set appropriate measures that (a) limit fishing effort in the long term, and (b) can be reviewed and adjusted in response to changes in stock status (FMP objective 6)

Task 1: Improving data (crab and lobster)

The priority is to establish an effective evidence base by improving national data collection approaches and, where possible, standardising reporting requirements across different sectors of the shellfish fleet to build an ongoing time series (FMP objective 1). This aligns with the ‘scientific evidence’ objective of the Act – ensuring that the right data are collected, and that management is based on the best available evidence.

Fishery-dependent data collection requirements include:

• fishing effort – for example, pot numbers or pot hauls (or a suitable equivalent, for example, effort deduced from steaming patterns from vessel monitoring systems (VMS) or inshore vessel monitoring systems (iVMS))
• spatial distribution of fishing activity at an appropriate scale (for example, ICES sub-rectangle) across all sectors of the fleet
• fleet characteristics and appropriate segmentation, to distinguish between ‘sub-sectors’ within the shellfish fleet (for example, vivier versus day boats)
• consistent reporting of recreational catches and contribution to total fishing mortality
• bycatch (species and frequency of capture)

Scientific research needs include:

• evaluating the appropriateness of current stock boundaries and alignment between management and stock areas (FMP objective 2)
• research to improve understanding of growth rates and natural mortality rates
• research to improve understanding of stock connectivity through migration, larval dispersal (crab only), and settlement and recruitment dynamics

Data-limited species

For data-limited species covered in this FMP, the focus will be on establishing basic time series of accurate landings and effort. Alongside this there will be annual monitoring of fishing patterns and fleet performance, and the periodic collection of biological data to enable indices of abundance to be established. Over time, such data can be used to monitor general trends in fishery performance as a means of identifying risks to long-term sustainability (objective 9).

Task 2: Addressing issues in current assessment approaches

While crab and lobster fisheries in English waters benefit from biennial stock assessments by Cefas, there are problems with current approaches. These include uncertainties around growth rates, natural mortality and stock connectivity^{[footnote 6]}. These issues are understood, so the priority is to address the knowledge gaps and model uncertainties and in turn establish an effective stock assessment methodology.

As task 1 progresses, and more data is made available, there will be a need to trial and test refined stock-modelling approaches to review sensitivity of model parameters and model assumptions (using simulated datasets). This will give an indication of the likely accuracy and sufficiency of revised approaches and their applicability to management of crab and lobster fisheries.

The aim is to deliver reliable assessments of stock status relevant to MSY targets, which will help to determine if management interventions are required to reduce fishing pressure on the stock. A reliable assessment methodology should also enable future stock projections to assess the impacts that changes in fishing effort (due to changes in fishing measures) could have on the stock. While this evidence is being gathered, measures to manage the potential environmental impacts of new fishing measures on data-limited or new and emerging fisheries will be considered.

Task 3: Initial management action

While steps are taken to improve the evidence base, there is a need for short- to medium-term management action to manage fishing effort and address the stock status, based on current crab and lobster assessments and exploitation rates (FMP objective 5). This approach will be underpinned by the precautionary objective of the Act.

Cefas and Project UK (a collaborative partnership between the fishing industry, regulators, scientists, NGOs and the seafood supply chain) have collated and provided some assessment of different proposed management approaches and tools for crab and lobster fisheries^{[footnote 7]},^{[footnote 8]}. An assessment of the different management interventions, their feasibility, and the potential contribution they can make to improving overall stock status, is provided in the section ‘Summary of management measures for crab and lobster fisheries in English waters’. Linkages to FMP objectives and the evidence and research plan are also provided, to show how data and knowledge gaps should be addressed. This assessment highlights that over time, and with better evidence, more prescriptive management measures can be introduced to manage fisheries to MSY.

There are also concerns from some in industry about latent capacity (the number of currently unused shellfish entitlements) in the sector. If latent entitlements were used in the future, this could put additional pressure on stocks. Shared shellfish principle 2 focuses on assessing the likely risk posed by capacity (including latent capacity) and developing appropriate measures to manage the risk of increased fishing pressure in the future. (See the ‘Shared shellfish principles’ section of this plan for more detail.)

Effective management requires a comprehensive understanding of total fishing mortality, including mortality from the recreational sector. As it is not clear what share of fishing mortality can be attributed to the recreational sector, work is required under objective 1 to consider:

• implementing regular reporting requirements to ensure recreational catches are accounted for in future data
• introducing measures to align recreational fishing effort or mortality with stock status, as appropriate

Five IFCAs already apply recreational permitting schemes that include provisions for catch reporting, as well as pot limits and daily catch limits in some jurisdictions.

The following is a summary of species-specific management priorities in the short to medium term.

Crab

Neither stock sizes or exploitation rates changed significantly between Cefas’s 2017 and 2019 crab assessments, which suggests a strong need for immediate management action to reduce exploitation rates and allow stocks to recover to levels aligned with MSY.

The 2020 Cefas report Management options for UK crab and scallop fisheries in Western Waters acknowledged that better information on catch and effort is required to inform more reliable stock estimates, and in turn to improve management of brown crab fisheries.

The Cefas report also highlighted the ‘3-S’ management approach which focuses on managing effort by limiting harvest by ‘size, sex, and season’, an approach already widely adopted in managing North American Dungeness crab fisheries. The FMP provides an opportunity to pilot finer scale management of selected CFUs by applying measures such as the 3-S approach alongside effort management, building on regional management initiatives already in place in some IFCA jurisdictions.

Lobster

Cefas assessments show decreasing stock size and high rates of exploitation, which point to the need for immediate management action. Proposed adjustments to the MCRS should provide additional protection to spawning stocks. More targeted measures to limit effort such as seasonal closures (temporal and spatial) or effort caps will also need to be considered as a priority in the FMP. Current evidence will be used to inform initial management interventions. There will also be a focus on piloting more targeted effort management at individual LFUs during the early years of the FMP.

Associated shellfish species

For data-limited shellfish species, it will be necessary to take precautionary management action, as necessary. In the absence of significant data, management decisions should still be informed by the best available evidence and make best use of fisher knowledge to ensure sustainable exploitation.

There are opportunities to learn from existing regional management initiatives for these species. For example, a higher  MCRS for crawfish has been implemented in the Cornwall and Devon and Severn IFCA jurisdictions. The introduction of this measure was based on reliable scientific evidence and alignment of the  MCRS with the species’ size of maturity for females.

Task 4: Embedding long-term management approaches

Longer-term management approaches for crab and lobster fisheries focus on the development of a harvest strategy with appropriate harvest control rules (HCRs). This is predicated on the delivery of tasks 1 and 2 and should be informed by outcomes of task 3, regarding short- to medium- term management decisions and appraisal of measures.

Some of the management tools that could be applied in English crab and lobster fisheries, if knowledge gaps were addressed, are listed in the section ‘Summary of management measures for crab and lobster fisheries in English waters’. These management tools should all be considered as part of FMP objectives 5 and 6 and the longer-term strategy for crab and lobster fisheries.

Over time, as both the evidence base and monitoring of management effectiveness improves, this process will become more straightforward. This cyclical process will allow future iterations of the FMP and implementation of the plan to focus on further refining the agility of management approaches at the right spatial scales to ensure long-term sustainability. This could include, but is not limited to, the application of pot limits, catch limits, or other effort limits (for example, days at sea) to reduce exploitation rates in line with MSY targets.

Across lobster and crab fisheries in English waters, different fleets have different trade expectations. Broad distinctions can be drawn between ‘inshore and offshore’ vessels (or large and small vessels, vivier vessels and day boats). These differences are influenced by vessel size, power, capacity, and fishing patterns. Future management of crab and lobster fisheries should consider the impacts on different fleet segments. While the FMP provides a national-level strategic management plan, its implementation will require tailored approaches to reflect both regional and fleet differences.

Proposed initial management interventions

To proactively address concerns about the long-term sustainability of the crab and lobster fisheries, and to deliver on the precautionary principles of the Act, 4 ‘initial management interventions’ are proposed as part of a package to be considered and developed further. These early interventions are intended to safeguard stocks and the fisheries, while more information is gathered to inform evidence-based responsive management in the future.

These preliminary management proposals have:

• existing literature appraising the likely feasibility or appropriateness of the measure in the UK crab or lobster fishery context
• evidence of broad stakeholder support or acceptance through FMP engagement events, the CMG, and the Project UK SW crab management workshop initiative
• evidence of support from the FMP public consultation
• a requirement for regulatory intervention as opposed to voluntary agreements, given the proposed nature or scale of the intervention.
• sufficient scientific evidence to support the introduction of the measure
• sufficient regulatory rationale to suggest that the proposed interventions will contribute to the delivery of fisheries management objectives laid out in the FMP

Proposal 1: Harmonisation of lobster and crawfish MCRS

Increased fishing pressure can impact the age and size structure of a stock, which in turn impacts reproductive capability and the ability of the stock to recover. A larger MCRS is likely to have conservation benefits, in terms of supporting a larger spawning stock biomass and enhanced reproductive capacity. MCRSs are easily enforced at the point of landing (and by inspection at sea). They are already applied in UK shellfish fisheries and are already accepted by industry as an effective means of increasing spawning stock potential.

This proposal explores standardising the MCRS for lobster and crawfish in English waters to 90mm and 110mm respectively, to harmonise with existing IFCA measures. In addition to providing additional protection for spawning stocks, the intention is to simplify the management landscape and reduce costs to fishing businesses and regulators. Regional evidence will be taken into account  during implementation of this intervention, the appropriateness of a phased approach to implementation of this measure will be considered. This management intervention is aligned with lobster-specific objective 5.

Good fishery management typically aims to ensure that at least 50% of females have a chance to reproduce at least once before they are removed by the fishery, referred to as L50. Studies have found that L50 occurs at between 88mm to 91mm carapace length in lobster, and between 100mm to 110mm for crawfish. As such, the proposed change to MCRS for these species is aligned with available biological data. It would be expected to improve rates of reproduction and recruitment, and to deliver improved stock biomass over time.

As with any management change, consideration must be given to positive and negative socio-economic impacts, which may result either at national, regional or local levels. Negative impacts of an MCRS change for lobster and crawfish could be reduced by:

1. Exploring options around implementation to mitigate impacts. This could include the use of longer lead-in times to allow fishers to prepare for changes, or making incremental changes to  an MCRS rather than a single-step change
2. Considering the timing of changes to reduce impact; for example, by making changes during the low season as opposed to the peak fishing season.
3. Exploring the application of additional legislation to reduce the likelihood of displacement or cross-boundary issues. For example, the use of a carriage order to simplify enforcement in regions where fishers might land their catch in a different jurisdiction with a lower MCRS.

Proposal 2: Prohibiting the landing of soft brown crab for bait

The Sea Fisheries Act (Shellfish) 1967 prohibits the landing of any brown crab that ‘has recently cast its shell’, unless it is to be used for bait. The proposal is to limit the landing, retention on board a vessel, and sale of soft-shelled brown crab, thus closing the legislative loophole which currently allows soft-shelled brown crab to be used for bait. The proposed changes would apply to brown crab (Cancer pagurus – also known as edible crab) fisheries in English waters (ICES Divisions 4b, 4c, 7a, 7d, 7e, 7f, 7g, 7h, 7j). The proposal does not refer to the use of brown crab waste from seafood processing activities as bait.

The purpose of this management measure is twofold:

• To address stock sustainability pressures by prohibiting the removal of soft-shelled individuals before they can reproduce within a given moult cycle.
• To create appropriate incentives to ensure brown crab landings attract the highest market value.

Crustaceans, such as brown crab, grow by moulting their shell and expanding into a new ‘soft’ shell. Moulting occurs before spawning, and female crabs mate during this soft-shell period. When moulting, crabs are more vulnerable to fishing, and the volume and quality of their meat decreases, as does the per-unit meat value. Despite the poor price and poor quality of the product, and the potential impact on stock sustainability from removing crabs from the population before spawning, there is a market for soft-shelled crab for use as bait, primarily in the whelk fishery. 

The English whelk fishery has expanded over the last decade, in response to increased prices and demand from Asian markets. Between 2010 and 2019 the number of UK registered vessels landing whelks increased by 165 (34%), creating concerns around bait provisioning to support continued growth. Brown crab mixed with dogfish is the most commonly used whelk bait, potentially creating a market for lower quality soft-shelled crab. However, alternative forms of bait will be explored further to mitigate the impacts of this measure for whelk fishers.

Ensuring that all soft-shelled brown crab caught in pots are immediately returned to the sea will protect individuals at this more vulnerable stage of their life cycle and allow them to reproduce within that moult period. As such, the proposed landings ban is expected to lead to more mature individual crabs being retained within the population, helping to protect stocks from over-fishing, and to support stock recovery and subsequently increased catches.

A ban on all landings of soft-shelled crab could be easily enforced at the point of landing and is already widely accepted by industry as an effective means of improving stock sustainability.

The successful implementation of these proposed changes will require a Statutory Instrument to amend the existing Sea Fisheries (Shellfish) Act 1967. A Fishing Industry Science Partnership (FISP) project between Bangor University, Seafish, Devon and Severn IFCA, is focused on developing a durometer-based methodology for defining soft-shelled brown crab, which could compliment this proposal by improving the enforceability of any such restrictions.

Proposal 3: Pilot finer scale management for brown crab and lobster in selected fishery units

The current management landscape for brown crab and lobster in English waters is fragmented. There is a wide range of management measures in place, including minimum conservation reference sizes (with crab MCRS ranging from 115mm to 160mm), voluntary and regulatory closures, access restrictions, vessel length restrictions, gear regulations, and pot limits. This level of complexity makes it more difficult for fishers to abide by regulations, increases business costs and for regulators to effectively enforce regulations.

The Cefas report Management options for UK crab and scallop fisheries in Western Waters (2020) cites the ‘3-S’ approach for managing crustacean fisheries, implementing measures based on size, sex and season. The FMP provides an opportunity to pilot finer scale management regimes at the CFU and LFU spatial scale, as opposed to management delineated by administrative boundaries. In line with the Cefas research on  management approaches, the focus would be on more effective application of MCRS (and harmonisation, as appropriate), effort limits, and restrictions based on the sex of shellfish to sustain spawning stock, and exploration of area-specific seasonal closures.

The proposal presents an opportunity for wider regionalisation of fishery management based on bio-geographic areas. This would involve exploring the use of locally appropriate input controls (such as pot limits or days at sea limits) or output controls (such as catch limits) to deliver effective management that is catered to the biological stock being exploited. Implementing specific management at stock level would:

• allow measures to be targeted to discrete biological stocks and to local stakeholder needs
• ensure fishers exploiting the same stock in different areas are subject to the same regulations
• enable better assessment of the effectiveness of management measures, allowing regulators to refine approaches to reach stock size or exploitation rate reference points in a given area

Some of the options for locally appropriate measures are listed here, with context as to how they could be implemented:

• pot limits – pot numbers could be determined relative to a vessel’s size, location, capacity or crew number and could be marked for identification
• days at sea limit – this could also be determined relative to a vessel’s size, capacity or crew number
• catch limits – these could be set on a precautionary basis (for example, based on track record of historical catches), and adjusted according to stock assessment outputs
• the ‘3-S’ approach – where area-specific biology and fishing patterns will determine measures that limit catch by size, sex and season

The following CFUs and LFUs have been identified for potential priority management action, due to their stock sizes being well below MSY and their exploitation rates being close to or above the maximum reference point. These CFUs and LFUs should be further evaluated, and the pilot scheme refined through consultation and discussion with stakeholders, where other areas will also be considered.

1. Western English Channel CFU (Southwest brown crab) – stock size was considered near MSY and exploitation rate was moderate in 2019. There are, however, anecdotal concerns about significant increases in fishing effort in the area in recent years, which are not yet reflected in stock assessment data.
2. Northumberland and Durham lobster LFU – stock size is below the minimum reference point and exploitation rates are high, near the maximum reference point limit in 2019.
3. Yorkshire Humber LFU – stock size is below the minimum reference point and exploitation rates are high, near the maximum reference point limit in 2019.

Lessons learned through pilot schemes could be used to highlight management measures, such as pot limits, which are potentially appropriate for implementation in other English crab and lobster fisheries. However, any potential measures will be evaluated on a regional basis.

Proposal 4: Progress work to develop an effort management strategy for crab and lobster

Developing measures to limit fishing effort at sustainable levels in crab and lobster fisheries is a high priority, and will be delivered as a medium- to long-term goal of this FMP, with actions to progress this work commencing in the short term. For example, effort limitations could be achieved by capping pot numbers and time at sea, each of which could be set based on a vessel’s size, capacity or crew number. Such schemes may be developed and trialled with stakeholder input (for example, through proposed regional management pilots) following the principles outlined in the precautionary approach.

A new management framework to limit fishing effort will take time to develop, however work underpinning these measures is considered high priority and will start in the immediate term.

Proposal 5: Implement measures to improve the information base on recreational crab and lobster fishing

Recreational shellfish fisheries are largely exempt from reporting requirements (apart from some IFCA districts that require recreational reporting), this means that not all removals from stocks are accounted for. Measuring total fishing mortality is fundamental to understanding exploitation rates and stock health. Introducing regulations to ensure that data are gathered on recreational catches could allow fishery managers to assess the likely impact of recreational fisheries and introduce appropriate management, where necessary, to limit impacts on stocks.

This proposal is aligned with FMP objectives 1 (data collection), 2 (assessing stock status), and 5 (short- to medium-term management).

Longer-term interventions

As the evidence base improves, the potential measures identified in the following section will be further developed as options for more targeted measures to be applied to manage fishing effort, as required. Linkages to FMP objectives and the evidence and research plan are provided to show how data and knowledge gaps should be addressed to enable the use of different management interventions. As better evidence is gathered for English crab and lobster fisheries, further adaptive management measures can be introduced to manage fisheries to MSY. This cyclical process will allow future iterations of the FMP to focus on progressing fisheries management from more rudimentary and precautionary approaches, while the evidence base is developing, towards regimes of agile management.

Any fisheries management intervention will result in a range of social, economic and biological impacts. When implementing a new fisheries management measure, there is a statutory requirement to estimate the anticipated wider national benefits (for example, improved stock status of target species), as well as likely impacts on stakeholders and means of mitigating negative impacts. Broader impacts on local communities, and economic, social and human rights impacts will be set out in associated impact assessments, which will be required as part of the development and implementation of specific measures.

Summary of management measures for crab and lobster fisheries in English waters

This section gives an appraisal of each measure’s likely timeframe and its current feasibility, based on existing evidence, justification for the appraisal, and additional supporting information where available. This appraisal is based on outputs from the WWER workshop 2021, and from the following reports:

• Management options for UK crab and scallop fisheries in Western Waters (Cefas, 2020
• Project UK SW crab management workshop: Final report (Project UK, 2022)
• Future management of brown crab in UK and Ireland (Nautilus Consultants, 2009)

To support the development of measures, detailed work plans setting out the required actions, time, and resource (at each work stage) to deliver future measures will be developed in collaboration with the CMG, relevant crab management groups and stakeholders, during early 2024. This will feed into implementation planning across the wider suite of FMPs, which will support the introduction of precautionary measures to provide increased protection to stocks.

This supports the requirement of the Fisheries Act to take a precautionary approach to stock management while the evidence base improves.

Ahead of detailed work plans being developed and agreed, the following provides an initial estimate of the time required to deliver actions set out for the various approaches:

• short term – within 1 to 2 years of publication of the plan
• medium term – in the next 3 to 5 years
• long term – more than 5 years (to reflect the more complex work required to develop them)

As approaches are developed, the supporting work plans will be reviewed regularly and adjusted where necessary, to ensure work progresses at an acceptable pace to meet agreed deadlines, and any risks to delivery are identified and mitigated.

MCRS variations (lobster and crawfish)

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Short term: no apparent evidence barriers to implementation.

Justification and additional information

Opportunities exist for harmonisation or increase of national MCRSs for lobster and crawfish, which could be explored as a short-term approach to increasing stock protection. MCRSs are easily enforced (shoreside) and easy for fishers to abide by.

Analysis of the level of catch decreases and the likely impact on industry, compared to the potential long-term benefits to the stock, would need to be carried out. This should include exploring whether phased MCRS increases over a set number of years could reduce impacts on the industry.

We will also consider landing size measures more broadly, which could include a maximum landing size for lobster in certain areas. Research and data gaps set out in the evidence plan will need to be completed before considering the appropriateness of this measure.

MCRS variations (brown crab)

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Medium term: some research required to understand stock level variability.

Justification and additional information

The crab MCRS landscape is currently fragmented and based on local or regional requirements. Finer scale management could be piloted in certain areas (at CFU level, see proposed initial management interventions to help determine whether changes to existing MCRS would provide increased protection to stocks).

Effectiveness of MCRS would be maximised, with better understanding of regional or local spawning cycles, to align MCRS with the likelihood of allowing crabs to spawn multiple times before capture.

MCRS increases are likely to result in a short-term decrease in catch per unit effort (CPUE), but long-term improvements. This could be mitigated by phasing MCRS increases over a set number of years.

Research needs 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 5.1 and 5.2 in the first version of the evidence and research plan (published for the public consultation in 2023) address data and knowledge gaps related to this management measure.

Ban on landing soft (‘white’) crab

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Short term: no apparent evidence barriers to implementation, and research is underway to address knowledge gaps.

Justification and additional information

Landing of soft brown crab is prohibited under the Sea Fisheries (Shellfish) Act 1967, unless it is being used as bait. This loophole has led to the development of a market for soft brown crab to be used as whelk bait.

Once prohibited, any soft-shelled crab caught in traps, instead of being landed as bait, would be immediately returned to the sea, and therefore protected at this more vulnerable stage of their life cycle, and allowing them to reproduce within that moult period.

Stakeholders are largely in favour of banning the landing of soft brown crab (Seafish FMP stakeholder engagement activities and Project UK South-West crab management workshops, 2022). Recently moulted, soft-shelled brown crab are primarily used as whelk bait as they are not considered suitable for processing and human consumption. Stakeholders acknowledged that some operators participate in, and benefit from, the market for soft crab. There would be an immediate economic impact for some operators who have historically landed soft brown crab for bait.

In February 2022 legislation was introduced to ban the landing of soft brown crab in Northern Ireland. The management proposal was in response to concerns from industry stakeholders and received unanimous support at public consultation.

There is currently no accepted definition of soft brown crab, beyond subjective inspection of individuals. This has the potential to complicate effective enforcement. A FISP-funded research project is under way to develop durometer-based methods to define soft crab. This would assist with better monitoring and enforcement of measures to restrict landing of soft-shelled crab for bait.

Restricting landings based on sex

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Longer term: some research required to understand efficacy and application.

Justification and additional information

Measures to protect female crabs or lobsters have the potential to increase spawning biomass. However, uncertainties exist around sex ratios, due to an assumption that sampled catches are representative of population structure. These assumptions make no allowance for possible behavioural differences or catchability between sexes.

Berried female crabs are thought to rarely enter baited pots, meaning their biology confers a degree of protection from capture and, as such, management interventions based on crab sex may not deliver sufficient protection to stocks.

There is a perception among fishers that management measures based on discrimination between sexes can lead to imbalance between males and females in the population (Seafish FMP stakeholder engagement activities, 2022).

V-notching schemes already exist, requiring that berried lobster or crawfish have a V-shaped notch cut into their tails. V-notched lobsters and crawfish cannot be landed. This means that spawning-sized females are afforded a degree of protection (sometimes for several years) until they have moulted several times and the V-notch has grown out.

A ban on landing egg-bearing (berried) lobsters is already in place in English waters through The Lobsters and Crawfish (Prohibition of Fishing and Landing) (Amendment) (England) Order 2017. The Order was introduced to improve stock health through increasing protection for spawning stock and juveniles and, in the long term, to increase the volume of catch that could be landed by fishers. Bans are largely supported by stakeholders (Seafish FMP stakeholder engagement activities and Project UK SW crab management workshops, 2022).

We will consider how new measures and future management regimes can work with and strengthen existing legislation, such as the berried lobster ban.

Research needs 1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 in the first version of the evidence and research plan (published for the public consultation in 2023) address data and knowledge gaps related to this management measure.

Pot limits

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Medium term: Lessons learned from the finer scale pilot proposals will inform development of this measure. Research is required to address gaps to inform evidence-based management action and enforcement considerations.

Justification and additional information

Initial considerations are under way around the benefits, impacts and application of pot limits, which includes exploring examples of where such limits currently apply, such as Northumberland and Sussex IFCA districts.

Pot limits could be determined relative to vessel size, capacity or number of crew on board. Further stakeholder consultation and analysis would be required to evaluate the appropriateness of different approaches. Different approaches may also be evaluated and trialled with stakeholder input through the regional management pilots.  

Pot limit measures would need to consider the following issues.

1. There is a need to improve availability of data on current fishing effort (total numbers of pots in use, pot design, pot hauls, soak times, crab and lobster catchability due to different baits, seasons, and individual animal behaviour) and distinguish between pot types in current data series.
2. The diversity of different vessels and fishing practices involved in the fishery could limit applicability.
3. Implementation of iVMS may provide a proxy of pot numbers hauled in the future, as will improving the fishery-dependent data collection.
4. Any limit on the number of pots could be accompanied by additional restrictions on pot design or capacity to prevent circumvention, as certain pot sizes or designs may have higher fishing efficiency. Without this, there is a risk that pot limits could fail to directly limit effort or fishing mortality.
5. There should be requirements for the recovery of pots that are currently in the water. It is not clear how this could be achieved or how excess pots could be disposed of.
6. Effective enforcement of pot limits may require additional gear-marking regulations and at-sea inspection, which would be resource intensive and expensive.

Research needs 1.1 (fishery-dependent data), 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 (assessing stock status), and 5.4 (evaluating input controls) in the first version of the evidence and research plan (published for the public consultation in 2023) address data and knowledge gaps related to this management measure.

Seasonal closures

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Longer term: some research required to understand efficacy and application.

Justification and additional information

FMP development engagement activities in 2022 found disagreement between stakeholders on when seasonal closures would be most effective – summer or winter – due to different patterns of fishing activity between large and small vessel operators. Spatial closures require consideration of what happens to static gears during closures – they may not be able to be brought ashore and stored. In addition to developing a clear rationale and criteria behind any such closures, for example, to protect spawning or based on evidence of stock status, the likely impacts on industry and other stocks or species would need to be explored.

Assess the impact of fishing effort within the fleet

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Longer term: some research required to understand efficacy and application.

Justification and additional information

Assessing the impact of fishing effort can help to inform the use of longer-term management measures, such as pot limits, days at sea limits, and other effort limitation intervention. There is a need to understand the risks that increased effort within these fisheries pose to the long-term sustainability of crab and lobster stocks. The scale of these risks will vary between fisheries, meaning a range of measures will need to be applied to be effective.

Assessing fishing effort is also important for understanding the expected impacts of applying various management measures. This includes the likelihood of effort being displaced into other fisheries if action is taken to remove effort (for example, days at sea, pot limitations) from the crab and lobster fleets. Latent capacity will also be considered when assessing fishing effort within the fleet and subsequent potential management proposals.

Managing recreational fishing effort

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Longer term: some research required to understand efficacy and application.

Justification and additional information

Effective fisheries management and stock assessment should account for all removals from the stock. There are currently some small-scale and recreational fisheries that are exempt from catch reporting requirements, meaning that total fishing mortality is under-reported.

Although some IFCAs apply permits, pot limits and bag limits, and reporting requirements to recreational shellfish fisheries, there is no data on the total number of recreational pots in use or on the impact recreational fishing has on shellfish stocks.

Recreational shellfish fishing was not considered a high priority by attendees of Project UK SW crab management workshops. Cefas considers recreational catches of shellfish to be minor and a low priority for management intervention.

Catch limits

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Longer term: significant research required to address gaps to inform evidence-based management action and enforcement considerations.

Justification and additional information

Catch limits could be an effective measure for crab and lobster fisheries, given the high survivability of animals returned to the sea. However, constraints with existing stock assessments mean it would not currently be possible to provide an analytical basis for catch forecasts and to provide annual scientific catch limit advice.

Initial catch limits could be set on a precautionary basis (for example, based on track record of historical catches) and adjusted according to stock assessment outputs (stock status trends). There is, however, a recognised risk that this approach could lead to fishing effort being limited unnecessarily or create scenarios such as a ‘race to fish’ which can impact markets. The potential impacts on industry across sectors and fisheries would therefore need to be explored.

While developing a thorough analysis of how and whether catch limits should be developed for English crab and lobster fisheries, the following issues would need to be considered.

1. Lack of support from stakeholders, who believe that catch limits are not a suitable management option for crab fisheries in English waters, at this time. This was voiced at both the crab and lobster FMP stakeholder engagement events (Seafish, 2022) and Project UK SW crab management workshops.
2. Catch limits are widely seen by stakeholders as creating a risk of consolidation of fishing opportunities in the hands of fewer larger operators.
3. Catch limits would likely incentivise better sorting or grading of catches and reduce landings of poor-quality crab, as fishers aim to maximise economic value of catches.
4. Further consideration would be required on how to equitably allocate future catch limits and to ensure fleets and communities remain economically profitable.
5. Identify relevant data required, including appropriate time series of data, to underpin catch limits, and understand if this is being collected already or if new methods for data collection are needed.

More detailed research needs 1.1 (fishery-dependent data), 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 (assessing stock status), and 5.4 (evaluating input controls) in the first version of the evidence and research plan (published for the public consultation in 2023) address data and knowledge gaps related to this management measure.

Effort limits (days at sea)

Likely timeframe and current feasibility

Longer term: significant research required to address gaps to inform evidence-based management action and enforcement considerations.

Justification and additional information

Effort limits are already in place for vessels of 15 metres and over targeting brown and spider crab in ICES areas 5, 6 and 7, under the retained EU WWER. Management of the regime is ‘desk based’, meaning enforcement is straightforward. While the WWER days at sea effort limits theoretically provide some level of protection to stocks, they are not based on scientific information relating to stock health but rather on historic track record.

Any such effort-based limits developed in the future would be based on the best available scientific evidence and likely apply to all areas and all sized vessels. Work has already been carried out to begin to explore potential future approaches, as set out in the Cefas report ‘Management options for UK crab and scallop fisheries in Western Waters, 2020’.

It is recognised that effort restrictions based on days at sea are not always appropriate for the management of static gear fisheries, as limits do not necessarily restrict the number of pots being used, nor is it a method commonly used for other static fisheries around the world. Despite this however, there have been mixed views from stakeholders around the appropriateness of days at sea effort as a management approach.

Stakeholders at Project UK SW crab management workshops felt that days at sea limits are appropriate for larger vessels fishing offshore, while there is a perception among smaller vessel owners that the amount of time they can go to sea is already restricted by bad weather, and that further restrictions on days at sea would disproportionately impact smaller vessels. Days at sea restrictions could therefore be implemented in a way which accounts for the dynamics of different fleet segments.

Managing environmental considerations

This FMP will contribute to policies relating to the wider marine environment, specifically the requirement to ensure the health of our seas for future generations, and ambitions to restore biodiversity and address climate change. These environmental impacts will be managed across all waters these fisheries exist in, and the wider environmental impacts of potting fisheries will also be considered.

Environmental Improvement Plan 2023 for England

This details the goals that government will pursue to improve the environment within a generation. It sets out how marine biodiversity will be protected and restored, and how the management of fishing should take an ‘environment first’ approach. It sets out a series of ambitious targets, with the following targets of relevance to the crab and lobster FMP.

1. Ensuring that all fish stocks are recovered to and maintained at levels that can produce their maximum sustainable yield. The crab and lobster FMP sets out a roadmap to achieve this objective by ensuring the appropriate data and evidence is available and that a reliable stock assessment model is in place.
2. A series of targets relating to protecting and restoring wider marine biodiversity, including increasing the proportion of protected and well-managed seas, better managing existing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), and ensuring populations of key species are sustainable with appropriate age structures. The crab and lobster FMP sets out an approach to better understand the impacts that pot fishing can have on the marine environment and to ensure action is taken when such impacts are adverse.

UK Marine Policy Statement (MPS) and individual marine plans for English waters

The MPS establishes the overarching framework to support the formulation of marine plans, which are designed to ensure marine resources are used in a sustainable way.

There are 11 marine plans covering English waters, and collectively they put into practice the objectives for the marine environment that are identified in the MPS. These objectives include sustainable economic development, a low-carbon economy, a sustainable marine environment, and realising the societal benefits that the marine area can provide.

Marine Plans should provide for fishing and aquaculture use and ensuring that decisions on other marine uses support habitats for fish stocks (nursery or spawning grounds).

The objectives of the crab and lobster FMP align with the MPS objectives in terms of the shared ambitions to deliver:

• long-term stock sustainability and a diverse and healthy marine environment
• crab and lobster fisheries that are managed to deliver economic prosperity to coastal communities and across the seafood supply chain.
• opportunities for stakeholders to engage in and collaborate on management decisions relating to crabs and lobsters
• decision-making underpinned by scientific and socio-economic evidence, with decisions monitored to ensure they are effective

Measures developed under the crab and lobster FMP should take account of the requirements of the relevant marine plan. Similarly, decisions on wider marine access and use made under a marine plan should consider the objectives of any relevant FMP. Marine spatial planning and FMP policies need to be developed in a joined-up way to ensure more effective use of the marine space and resources.

The challenges that increasing spatial pressures can pose to fisheries need to be considered, including any social, economic or environmental implications resulting from possible displacement. The government has established a marine spatial prioritisation programme to help support a more strategic approach to managing future pressures in English seas. The programme will engage with stakeholders and evaluate existing and emerging evidence to understand future demands and determine the best way of managing them. Outputs from the programme will inform the implementation phase and subsequent reviews of the FMP, as well as our future approach to marine planning.

The UK Marine Strategy (and good environmental status)

The UK Marine Strategy provides the framework for delivering clean, healthy, safe, productive and biologically diverse oceans and seas. It consists of a simple 3-stage framework for achieving good environmental status (GES) in our seas through protecting the marine environment, preventing its deterioration and restoring it, where practical, while allowing the sustainable use of marine resources.

We have strengthened the link between the FMP objectives and goals and the relevant UK Marine Strategy descriptor GES targets that they will contribute to achieving.

The crab and lobster FMP will be the primary mechanism to deliver GES across all crab and lobster fisheries in English waters. This will be achieved by:

• improving the science and information base on the status of stocks
• establishing if fishing has an adverse impact on the marine environment and intervening if it does
• ensuring that crab and lobster stocks are responsibly and responsively managed, so that fisheries are profitable and capable of delivering social and economic benefits

Commercial fish and shellfish stocks

The management interventions set out in this FMP have been identified with the aim of achieving sustainable harvesting of crab and lobster stocks. Once implemented they will contribute to achieving GES for UK Marine Strategy descriptor 3 (Commercial fish and shellfish stocks), in English waters.

Bycatch

Crab and lobster management objective 3, potential action 3, and objective 4, potential action 3, have been developed to address the issue of bycatch associated with the crab and lobster fisheries. They will contribute to achieving GES for UK Marine Strategy descriptor 1 (Biological diversity) and descriptor 4 (Food webs), in English waters.

Marine litter

Crab and lobster management objective 3, potential action 4, has been developed to address the issue of marine litter associated with the crab and lobster fisheries. It will contribute to achieving GES for UK Marine Strategy descriptor 10 (Marine litter), in English waters.

Marine Protected Areas

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are one of the main tools for protecting marine habitats and species and delivering GES. They also support environmental commitments in domestic legislation and international commitments under the Global Biodiversity Framework, including to protect 30% of our seas by 2030. The MPA network has been established with 178 sites covering 40% of English waters.

Regulators for all industries are required to ensure the activities they oversee do not damage interest features of MPAs. IFCAs and the MMO are putting byelaws in place where necessary to protect MPAs from fishing. Defra aims to have measures in place to protect all MPAs by the end of 2024.

Highly Protected Marine Areas

Building on the network of MPAs, Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs) are areas of the sea (including the shoreline) that have been granted high levels of protection, with the aim of achieving full recovery of marine ecosystems. HPMAs will allow nature to fully recover to a more natural state by prohibiting extractive, destructive and depositional activities, such as dredging, fishing and anchoring to allow the ecosystem to thrive.

The first 3 pilot HPMAs (Northeast of Farnes Deep, Allonby Bay, and Dolphin Head) were selected, following a 12-week consultation and analysis of responses, due to the ecological importance of nature recovery at the sites. The sites were designated on 5 July 2023. Defra is currently exploring options for additional sites. Any potential future HPMAs will also be subject to consultation.

Marine wildlife bycatch mitigation initiative

The marine wildlife bycatch mitigation initiative sets out how the UK will achieve its ambitions to minimise and, where possible, eliminate the bycatch (accidental capture) and entanglement of sensitive marine species in UK fisheries. This will be achieved by improving monitoring of bycatch and identifying and managing (through bycatch mitigation measures) bycatch hotspots.

The Act explicitly requires, through the ecosystem objective, that incidental catches of sensitive marine species should be minimised and where possible eliminated. While sensitive marine species bycatch is considered low in potting fisheries, it is proposed that a bycatch monitoring plan is implemented across all crab and lobster fisheries in English waters to understand the extent of interactions and the scale of risk that these interactions pose to marine species populations.

Climate Change Act 2008

This legislation establishes the target to reach net zero by 2050. The FMP will ensure that appropriate research and tools are in place so that the shellfish supply chain is equipped to minimise its emissions, and to enable the fishing industry to understand and adapt to the environmental impacts of climate change. The FMP will address the Climate Change Act 2008 through brown crab objective 10 and European lobster objective 9.

Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022

This legislation references that decapod crustacea and cephalopods are formally recognised as sentient beings and that this should be considered in government policy and decision making. This has led to increased awareness of the importance of animal welfare practices in the shellfish supply chain.

Ensuring that appropriate handling and dispatch practices are in place across each point of the supply chain is a priority for the crab and lobster sector. Animal welfare considerations build and maintain industry reputation among consumers but also bring economic benefits to UK shellfish businesses which can consistently deliver high quality seafood products to market. As such there is considerable stakeholder interest in this issue, which will be addressed in the crab and lobster FMP through the shared shellfish principles.

Implementation, monitoring and review

Implementation

Defra’s crab and lobster FMP sets out a vision and goals for these fisheries, together with the policies and management interventions necessary to achieve these goals.

This FMP proposes new measures but does not implement them. The actions and measures contained within this FMP will undergo a subsequent implementation phase where appropriate mechanisms will be required to deliver them. Such mechanisms could include voluntary measures, licence conditions, national and regional byelaws, and statutory instruments. This implementation phase will build on the existing evidence base, any action taken throughout the FMP’s development, and the options discussed with stakeholders.

Subsequent implementation roadmaps will be subject to regular monitoring and review to ensure progress. The crab and lobster FMP is subject to a statutory review process at a maximum 6 years after publication. At this point it will be necessary to show evidence of what has been achieved through the implementation of those actions and measures. In line with the strategic environmental assessments developed alongside this FMP, this review process will include monitoring for potential environmental effects, to help establish whether any changes are needed in the management of the respective fisheries.

Monitoring indicators

This is the first version of the crab and lobster FMP. It sets out the first steps and longer-term vision necessary for sustainable management of this fishery. These plans are intended to allow an adaptive approach and will be reviewed and improved over time, as we collect more evidence and collaborate with the fishing sector and wider interests on the sustainable management of these fisheries.

Delivery of the actions and measures for this crab and lobster FMP will be monitored.

For some stocks, or elements of stocks (male crabs in the Western Channel and Celtic Sea CFUs), there is insufficient evidence to determine MSY or a proxy for MSY. This FMP sets out the proposed steps to build the evidence base for these data-limited stocks to support progress towards defining and measuring stock status and reporting on stock sustainability. An increase in the available evidence to define and measure stock status will be an indicator of the effectiveness of this plan for these stocks.

For some stocks with insufficient data to carry out a stock assessment, there are currently no plans set out in this FMP to increase data collection, due to limited fishing effort and landings. Plans to increase data collection for these stocks will be reviewed over time.

For some stocks, there is sufficient evidence to determine a proxy for MSY and to assess the sustainability of the stock, with most stocks below sustainable limits. An increase and/or maintenance of the number of stocks fished at sustainable levels will indicate the effectiveness of this plan for these stocks. 

This FMP sets out the proposed steps to build the evidence base to improve stock assessment calculations for all stocks. An increase in the available evidence with improved stock assessments will be an indicator of the effectiveness of this plan for these stocks.

Other indicators to measure the effectiveness of the policies for restoring these stocks to, or maintaining them at, sustainable levels, are:

• the introduction of increased, and where possible harmonised, MCRS for lobster and crawfish to more accurately reflect the available evidence on size of maturity and improve the reproductive capacity of the stocks, in order to help maintain or increase their stock levels
• the development and introduction of effort management measures for crab and lobster, including considering the introduction of both input controls (for example, pot limits or days at sea limits) and output controls (catch limits, for example) to increase protection for stocks, in order to help maintain or increase their levels

Review of the crab and lobster FMP

The crab and lobster FMP must be reviewed when appropriate and at least every 6 years. This formal review will assess how the FMP has performed in terms of delivering against the objectives of the Act.

The findings of these reviews will also inform the development of subsequent iterations of the FMP. The crab and lobster FMP will also be assessed as part of the process to report on the overall contribution of FMPs to the delivery of the JFS. The Act requires fisheries policy authorities to report on the JFS every 3 years and to review the JFS whenever deemed appropriate, or at least within 6 years of publication.

1. The first version of the draft plan was included in the FMP Annexes document published for the public consultation in 2023. Defra will revise and maintain the research and evidence plan through the lifetime of the FMP. ↩

2. Input controls are fisheries management measures that restrict the number and size of fishing vessels (fishing capacity controls), the amount of time fishing vessels are allowed to fish (vessel usage controls), or the product of capacity and usage (fishing effort controls). ‘A Fishery Manager’s Guidebook - Management Measures and their Application’. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 424. ↩

3. Output controls are direct limits on the volume of fish coming out of a fishery and can include the tonnage or the number of fish or shellfish that may be caught from a fishery in a period of time, such as total allowable catches. FAO ibid. ↩

4. Article 496 of the TCA requires that fisheries management interventions are evidenced-based, proportionate and non-discriminatory to either party. ↩

5. For further detail see the ‘Evidence Statement’ section of the FMP Annexes document published for the public consultation in 2023. ↩

6. These issues were first described in research needs 2.1 and 2.2 of the evidence and research plan section of the FMP Annexes document published for the public consultation in 2023. ↩

7. Cefas report Management options for UK crab and scallop fisheries in Western Waters (Cefas, 2020) ↩

8. Project UK SW crab management workshop: Final report (Project UK, 2022) ↩